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Mata kuliah Priolitas antar Agama (Agama TAOISM)

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Taoism (also spelled Daoism ; see below) refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced all people Eastern Asia for more than two millennia. Taoisme (juga dieja Taoisme; lihat di bawah) mengacu pada berbagai yang terkait dengan filosofis dan keagamaan tradisi yang telah mempengaruhi semua orang Asia Timur selama lebih dari dua ribu tahun. They also notably influenced the Western world, particularly since the 19th century. Mereka juga terutama mempengaruhi dunia Barat, terutama sejak abad ke-19. The word , Tao (or Dao , depending on the romanization scheme), roughly translates as "path" or "way". Kata 道, Tao (atau Dao, tergantung pada romanisasi skema), secara kasar diterjemahkan sebagai "jalan" atau "cara". It carries more abstract, spiritual meanings in folk religion and Chinese philosophy . Ini membawa lebih abstrak, makna rohani dalam agama rakyat dan filsafat Cina .

Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao : compassion , moderation , and humility , while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature , the relationship between humanity and the cosmos ( 天人相应 ); health and longevity ; and wu wei (action through inaction). Tao kepatutan dan etika menekankan Tiga Permata dari Tao : kasih sayang , moderasi , dan kerendahan hati , sementara Tao pikir umumnya berfokus pada alam , hubungan antara manusia dan kosmos (天人相应); kesehatan dan umur panjang , dan wu wei (tindakan melalui kelambanan). Harmony with the Universe , or the source thereof (Tao), is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices. Selaras dengan alam semesta , atau sumber daripadanya (Tao), adalah hasil yang diinginkan banyak aturan Tao dan praktik.

Reverence for ancestor spirits and immortals is common in popular Taoism. Penghormatan kepada roh leluhur dan abadi adalah umum dalam Taoisme populer. Organized Taoism distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some professional Taoists ( Dàoshi ) view as debased. Chinese alchemy (including Neidan ), astrology , cuisine , Zen Buddhism , several Chinese martial arts , Chinese traditional medicine , feng shui , and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Diselenggarakan Taoisme membedakan kegiatan ritual dari bahwa agama rakyat, yang beberapa Tao profesional ( Dàoshi ) view as direndahkan. alkimia Cina (termasuk Neidan ), astrologi , masakan , Buddhisme Zen , beberapa seni bela diri Cina , obat tradisional Cina , feng shui , dan banyak gaya qigong telah terjalin dengan Taoisme sepanjang sejarah.

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[ edit ] Spelling and pronunciation [ sunting ] Ejaan dan pengucapan

A Taoist Temple in Hong Kong Sebuah Kuil Tao di Hong Kong

In English, the words "Daoism" and "Taoism" are the subject of an ongoing controversy over the preferred romanization . Dalam bahasa Inggris, kata "Taoisme" dan "Taoisme" adalah subyek dari sebuah kontroversi berkelanjutan selama lebih disukai romanisasi . The root Chinese word "way, path" is romanized tao in the older Wade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. Akar Cina kata "jalan, path" adalah diromanisasi tao di tua Wade-Giles sistem dan dao di modern Pinyin sistem. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism / Daoism is a calque formed from the Chinese loanword tao / dao "way; route; principle" and the native suffix -ism . Dalam linguistik terminologi, Inggris Taoisme / Taoisme adalah calque terbentuk dari Cina loanword tao / dao "jalan, rute, prinsip" dan asli sufiks -ism. The sometimes heated arguments over Taoism vs. Daoism involve sinology , phonemes , loanwords , and politics – not to mention whether Taoism should be pronounced / ˈ t . ɪ z əm / or / ˈ d . ɪ z əm / . Kadang-kadang argumen dipanaskan selama Taoisme vs Taoisme melibatkan sinology , fonem , kata-kata pinjaman , dan politik - belum lagi apakah Taoisme harus diucapkan / t əm. ɪ z / atau / d əm. ɪ z / .

Daoism is consistently pronounced / ˈ d . ɪ z əm / , but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be / ˈ d . ɪ z əm / or / ˈ t . ɪ z əm / . Taoisme secara konsisten diucapkan / d z. ɪ əm / , tetapi penutur bahasa Inggris tidak setuju apakah harus Taoisme / d z. ɪ əm / atau / t z. ɪ əm / . In theory, both Wade-Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism . Dalam teori, kedua-Giles Wade dan dao tao Pinyin yang diartikulasikan identik, seperti Taoisme dan Taoisme. An investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages (a pun on the Dow Jones Indexes ) illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciation's widespread familiarity. [ 1 ] In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ , reading the Chinese unaspirated lenis ("weak") /t/ as the English voiceless stop consonant /t/ . Lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism . Sebuah buku berjudul The Tao investasi Jones Averages (seorang pun di Indeks Dow Jones ) menggambarkan hal ini / daʊ's meluas keakraban pengucapan /. [1] Dalam pidatonya, Tao dan Tao sering diucapkan / taʊ / dan taʊ.ɪzəm /, membaca Cina unaspirated lenis ("lemah") / t / sebagai bersuara Inggris konsonan t / /. Leksikografi menunjukkan perbedaan Inggris Inggris dan Amerika dalam mengucapkan Taoisme. A study of major English dictionaries published in Great Britain and the United States found the most common Taoism glosses were /taʊ.ɪzəm/ in British sources and /daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm/ in American ones. [ 2 ] Sebuah studi tentang kamus bahasa Inggris penting yang disiarkan di Inggris dan Amerika Serikat menemukan yang paling umum Taoisme glosses adalah / taʊ.ɪzəm / dalam sumber-sumber Inggris dan / daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm / pada orang Amerika. [2]

[ edit ] Categorization [ sunting ] Kategorisasi

There is debate over how, and whether, Taoism should be categorized. Ada perdebatan atas bagaimana, dan apakah, Taoisme harus digolongkan. Livia Kohn divided it into the following three categories: [ 3 ] Livia Kohn dibagi ke dalam tiga kategori berikut: [3]

  1. Philosophical Taoism ( Daojia ( Pinyin : Dàojiā ) 道家 ) – A philosophical school based on the texts Dao De Jing ( 道德經 ) and Zhuangzi ( 莊子 ); Filosofis Taoisme (Daojia ( Pinyin : Dàojiā ) 道家) - Sebuah sekolah filosofis didasarkan pada teks-teks Dao De Jing (道德经) dan Zhuangzi (庄子);
  2. Religious Taoism ( Daojiao ( Pinyin : Dàojiào ) 道敎 ) – A family of organized Chinese religious movements originating from the Celestial Masters movement during the late Han Dynasty and later including the "Orthodox" ( Zhengyi 正一 ) and "Complete Reality" ( Quanzhen 全眞 ) sects, which claim lineages going back to Lao Zi ( 老子 ) or Zhang Daoling in the late Han Dynasty ; Agama Taoisme (Daojiao ( Pinyin : Dàojiào ) 道敎) - Sebuah keluarga terorganisir Cina gerakan keagamaan yang berasal dari Celestial Masters perubahan selama akhir Dinasti Han dan kemudian termasuk "Ortodoks" ( ZhengYi 正一) dan "Realitas Lengkap" ( QuanZhen 全眞) sekte, yang mengklaim garis keturunan akan kembali ke Lao Zi (老子) atau Zhang Daoling pada akhir Dinasti Han ;
  3. Folk Taoism – The Chinese folk religion . Folk Taoisme - The agama rakyat Cina .

This distinction is complicated by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of Taoist schools, sects and movements. [ 4 ] Some scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao. [ 5 ] According to Kirkland, "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and the West, have finally abandoned the simplistic dichotomy of Tao-chia and Tao-chiao , 'philosophical Taoism' and 'religious Taoism.'" [ 6 ] Perbedaan ini rumit oleh hermeneutik (penafsiran) kesulitan dalam kategorisasi sekte Tao sekolah, dan gerakan. [4] Beberapa sarjana percaya bahwa tidak ada perbedaan antara Daojia dan Daojiao. [5] Menurut Kirkland, "kebanyakan sarjana yang serius mempelajari Taoisme, baik di Asia dan Barat, akhirnya meninggalkan dikotomi sederhana dari Tao-chia dan Tao-chiao, 'Taoisme filosofis' dan 'Taoisme agama.' " [6]

Hansen states that the identification of "Taoism" as such first occurred in the early Han Dynasty when dao-jia was identified as a single school. [ 7 ] The writings of Laozi and Zhuangzi were linked together under this single tradition during the Han Dynasty, but notably not before. [ 8 ] It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing . [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Additionally, Graham states that Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist, a classification that did not arise until well after his death. [ 10 ] Hansen menyatakan bahwa identifikasi "Taoisme" seperti itu pertama terjadi di awal Dinasti Han ketika dao-jia diidentifikasi sebagai sekolah tunggal. [7] Tulisan-tulisan Laozi dan Zhuangzi dihubungkan bersama di bawah ini tradisi tunggal selama Dinasti Han, tetapi terutama bukan sebelumnya. [8] Hal ini mungkin bahwa Zhuangzi akrab dengan teks Daodejing . [9] [10] Selain itu, Graham Zhuangzi menyatakan bahwa tidak akan mengidentifikasi dirinya sebagai Tao, klasifikasi yang tidak muncul sampai baik setelah kematiannya. [10]

Taoism does not fall strictly under an umbrella or a definition of an organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions , nor can it purely be studied as the originator or a variant of Chinese folk religion , as much of the traditional religion is outside of the tenets and core teachings of Taoism. [ 11 ] Robinet asserts that Taoism is better understood as a way of life than as a religion, and that its adherents do not approach or view Taoism the way non-Taoist historians have done. [ 12 ] Henri Maspero noted that many scholarly works frame Taoism as a school of thought focused on the quest for immortality . [ 13 ] Taoisme tidak termasuk ketat di bawah payung atau definisi dari suatu agama yang terorganisasi seperti tradisi Ibrahim , juga tidak dapat murni dipelajari sebagai pencetus atau varian dari agama rakyat Cina , sebanyak agama tradisional berada di luar ajaran dan inti ajaran Taoisme. [11] Robinet menegaskan bahwa Taoisme lebih baik dipahami sebagai suatu cara hidup daripada sebagai agama, dan bahwa para pengikutnya tidak pendekatan atau melihat Taoisme cara-Taoisme sejarawan non lakukan. [12] Henri Maspero mencatat bahwa banyak karya ilmiah kerangka Taoisme sebagai aliran pemikiran difokuskan pada pencarian untuk keabadian . [13]

[ edit ] Beliefs [ sunting ] Keyakinan

A Taoist Temple in Taiwan , showing elements of the Jingxiang religious practice and sculptures of Dragon and Lion guardians Sebuah Kuil Tao di Taiwan , menunjukkan unsur-unsur dari Jingxiang praktek keagamaan dan patung Naga dan Lion wali

Taoist beliefs include teachings based on revelations from various sources. kepercayaan Tao termasuk ajaran berdasarkan wahyu dari berbagai sumber. Therefore, different branches of Taoism often have differing beliefs, especially concerning nature. Oleh karena itu, berbagai cabang Taoisme sering memiliki keyakinan berbeda, terutama mengenai alam. Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that nearly all the sects share. [ 14 ] These relate to the symbology of the Tai-Chi, or Ying Yang symbol, and the notion of wu-wei (action through inaction) which seek to counterbalance Yin with Yang at every opportunity. Namun demikian, ada keyakinan inti tertentu bahwa hampir semua saham sekte. [14] Ini berhubungan dengan simbologi dari Tai-Chi, atau simbol Ying Yang, dan konsep wu-wei (tindakan melalui kelambanan) yang berusaha untuk mengimbangi Yin dengan Yang di setiap kesempatan. Generally speaking, Taoists believe in embodiment and pragmatism, engaging practice to actualize the natural order within themselves. Secara umum, Tao percaya pada perwujudan dan pragmatisme, menjalankan praktek untuk mewujudkan tatanan alam dalam diri mereka.

[ edit ] Principles [ sunting ] Prinsip

Taoist theology emphasizes various themes found in the Daodejing and Zhuangzi , such as naturalness, vitality, peace , "non-action" ( wu wei , or "effortless effort"—see below ), emptiness (refinement), detachment , flexibility, receptiveness, spontaneity, the relativism of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior . teologi Tao menekankan berbagai tema ditemukan di Daodejing dan Zhuangzi, seperti kealamian, vitalitas, damai , "non-tindakan" (wu wei, atau "usaha mudah"-lihat di bawah ), kekosongan (perbaikan), detasemen , fleksibilitas, kesiapan, spontanitas, para relativisme cara manusia hidup, cara berbicara dan pedoman perilaku .

[ edit ] Tao [ sunting ] Tao

Tao literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line. [ 15 ] Wing-tsit Chan stated that Tao meant a system of morality to Confucianists , but the natural, eternal, spontaneous, indescribable way things began and pursued their course to Taoists. [ 16 ] Hansen disagrees that these were separate meanings and attributes. [ 17 ] Cane asserts Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe , or the force behind the natural order, equating it with the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered. [ 18 ] Martinson says that Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao. [ 19 ] The flow of qi , as the essential energy of action and existence, is often compared to the universal order of Tao. Tao secara harfiah berarti "jalan", tetapi juga bisa diartikan sebagai jalan, saluran, jalan, doktrin, atau baris. [15] -tsit Chan Wing menyatakan bahwa Tao berarti sistem moralitas untuk Konghucu , tetapi alam, abadi, spontan, cara hal-hal tak terlukiskan mulai dan mengejar program mereka untuk Tao. [16] Hansen tidak setuju bahwa ini adalah makna yang terpisah dan atribut. [17] Tebu menegaskan Tao secara kasar dapat dinyatakan sebagai aliran alam semesta, atau kekuatan di balik tatanan alam, menyamakan dengan pengaruh yang membuat alam semesta seimbang dan memerintahkan. [18] Martinson mengatakan bahwa Tao dikaitkan dengan alam, karena keyakinan bahwa alam menunjukkan Tao. [19] Aliran qi , sebagai energi penting dari aksi dan keberadaan, sering dibandingkan dengan urutan universal Tao. Tao is compared to what it is not , which according to Keller is similar to the negative theology of Western scholars. [ 20 ] It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence. Tao dibandingkan dengan apa yang bukan, yang menurut Keller mirip dengan teologi negatif sarjana Barat. [20] Hal ini sering dianggap sebagai sumber baik keberadaan dan non-eksistensi. LaFargue asserts that Tao is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concepts of atman and dharma . [ 21 ] Lafargue menegaskan bahwa Tao jarang objek ibadah, diperlakukan lebih seperti India konsep atman dan dharma . [21]

[ edit ] De (Te) [ sunting ] De (Te)

Tao is also associated with the complex concept of De ( ) "power; virtue; integrity", that is, the active expression of Tao. [ 22 ] De is the active living, or cultivation, of that "way". [ 23 ] Tao juga berhubungan dengan konsep kompleks De ( ) "kekuasaan; kebajikan, integritas", yaitu ekspresi aktif Tao. [22] De adalah hidup aktif, atau budidaya, itu "cara". [23 ]

[ edit ] Wu wei [ sunting ] Wu wei

Wu wei ( simplified Chinese : 无为 ; traditional Chinese : 無爲 ; pinyin : wúwéi or traditional Chinese : 無為 ) is a central concept in Taoism. Wu wei ( Cina disederhanakan : 无为; tradisional Cina : 无为; pinyin : Wuwei atau tradisional Cina : 无为) adalah sebuah konsep sentral dalam Taoisme. The literal meaning of wu wei is "without action". Arti harfiah wu wei adalah "tanpa tindakan". It is often expressed by the paradox wei wu wei , meaning "action without action" or "effortless doing". [ 24 ] The practice and efficacy of wu wei are fundamental in Taoist thought, most prominently emphasized in philosophical Taoism. Hal ini sering diungkapkan oleh wu wei wei paradoks, yang berarti "aksi tanpa tindakan" atau "melakukan tanpa usaha". [24] Praktek dan khasiat wei wu sangat penting dalam pemikiran Tao, yang paling menonjol ditekankan dalam filsafat Taoisme. The goal of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. Tujuan dari wei wu adalah sejalan dengan Tao, dan yang tidak kelihatan mengungkapkan soft power dalam segala sesuatu. It is believed by Taoists that masters of wu wei can observe and follow this invisible potential, the innate in-action of the Way. [ 25 ] Hal ini diyakini oleh Tao bahwa master wu wei dapat mengamati dan mengikuti potensi ini tak terlihat, bawaan di-tindakan Jalan. [25]

In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature. [ 26 ] Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. Dalam teks Tao kuno, wei wu dikaitkan dengan air melalui alam menghasilkan perusahaan. [26] filsafat Tao mengusulkan bahwa alam semesta bekerja harmonis menurut cara sendiri. When someone exerts their will against the world, they disrupt that harmony. Ketika seseorang exerts akan mereka terhadap dunia, mereka mengganggu harmoni itu. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Taoisme tidak mengidentifikasi seseorang akan sebagai akar masalah. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe. [ 27 ] Sebaliknya, itu menegaskan bahwa seseorang harus tempat akan mereka selaras dengan alam semesta alam. [27]

[ edit ] Pu [ sunting ] Pu

Pu ( simplified Chinese : ; traditional Chinese : ; pinyin : pǔ, pú ; Wade–Giles : p'u; lit. "uncut wood") is translated "uncarved block", "unhewn log", or "simplicity". Pu ( Cina disederhanakan : ; tradisional Cina : ; pinyin : pǔ, pu; Wade-Giles :; menyala. P'u "dipotong kayu") diterjemahkan "blok uncarved", "unhewn log", atau "kesederhanaan". It is a metaphor for the state of wu wei ( 無爲 ) and the principle of jian ( ). [ 28 ] It represents a passive state of receptiveness. Pu is a symbol for a state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. Ini adalah metafora untuk negara wu wei (无为) dan prinsip jian ( ). [28] Ini merupakan keadaan pasif yang terbuka. Pu adalah simbol untuk keadaan potensi dan persepsi murni tanpa prasangka. In this state, Taoists believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion. [ 29 ] Dalam keadaan ini, Tao percaya bahwa segala sesuatu dilihat sebagaimana adanya, tanpa prasangka atau ilusi. [29]

Pu is usually seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of tao . [ 30 ] It is believed to be the true nature of the mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences. [ 31 ] In the state of pu , there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. Pu biasanya dilihat sebagai menjaga diri di negara primordial tao. [30] Hal ini diyakini akan sifat sejati dari pikiran, tidak dibebani oleh pengetahuan atau pengalaman. [31] Dalam keadaan pu, tidak ada benar atau salah , cantik atau jelek. There is only pure experience, or awareness , free from learned labels and definitions. Hanya ada pengalaman murni, atau kesadaran , bebas dari label belajar dan definisi. It is this state of being that is the goal of following wu wei . Ini adalah keadaan yang yang merupakan tujuan dari wei wu berikut.

[ edit ] Spirituality [ sunting ] Spiritualitas

Taoists believe that man is a microcosm for the universe . [ 11 ] The body ties directly into the Chinese five elements . Tao percaya bahwa manusia adalah mikrokosmos bagi alam semesta . [11] Hubungan tubuh langsung ke dalam elemen Cina lima . The five organs correlate with the five elements, the five directions and the seasons. [ 32 ] Akin to the Hermetic maxim of " as above, so below ", Taoism posits that man may gain knowledge of the universe by understanding himself. [ 33 ] Lima organ berhubungan dengan lima elemen, lima arah dan musim. [32] Akin ke Hermetik maksim " seperti di atas, jadi di bawah ", Taoisme berpendapat bahwa manusia dapat memperoleh pengetahuan tentang alam semesta dengan memahami sendiri. [33]

In Taoism, even beyond Chinese folk religion, various rituals, exercises, and substances are said to positively affect one's physical and mental health . Dalam Taoisme, bahkan di luar agama rakyat Cina, berbagai ritual, latihan, dan zat dikatakan positif mempengaruhi satu fisik dan mental kesehatan . They are also intended to align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These concepts seem basic to Taoism in its elite forms. Internal alchemy and various spiritual practices are used by some Taoists to improve health and extend life, theoretically even to the point of physical immortality. [ 11 ] Mereka juga dimaksudkan untuk menyelaraskan diri secara rohani dengan kekuatan kosmik, atau mengaktifkan perjalanan spiritual gembira. [34] [35] Konsep-konsep ini tampaknya dasar untuk Taoisme dalam bentuk elit. alkimia internal dan berbagai praktik spiritual digunakan oleh beberapa Tao untuk meningkatkan kesehatan dan memperpanjang umur, secara teoritis bahkan sampai keabadian fisik. [11]

[ edit ] Eschatology [ sunting ] Eskatologi

[ edit ] Pantheon [ sunting ] Pantheon

Laozi depicted as a Taoist teacher Laozi digambarkan sebagai guru Taois

The traditional Chinese religion is polytheistic . Agama tradisional Cina yang musyrik . Its many deities are part of a heavenly hierarchy that mirrors the bureaucracy of Imperial China . banyak dewa nya adalah bagian dari hierarki surgawi yang mencerminkan birokrasi Kekaisaran Cina . According to their beliefs, Chinese deities may be promoted or demoted for their actions. Menurut keyakinan mereka, dewa Cina dapat dipromosikan atau diturunkan atas tindakan mereka. Some deities are also simply exalted humans, such as Guan Yu , the god of honor and piety. Beberapa dewa yang juga ditinggikan manusia sederhana, seperti Guan Yu , dewa kehormatan dan kesalehan. The particular deities worshipped vary according to geographical regions and historical periods in China, though the general pattern of worship is more constant. [ 36 ] Menyembah dewa tertentu bervariasi menurut wilayah geografis dan periode sejarah di Cina, meskipun pola umum ibadah lebih konstan. [36]

There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon. [ 37 ] Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity . Ada perbedaan pendapat mengenai komposisi yang tepat dari dewa ini. [37] Populer Taoisme biasanya menyajikan Kaisar Langit sebagai kepala resmi dewa . Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi ( Laojun , "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] Intelektual ("elit") Tao, seperti Master Celestial sekte, biasanya hadir Laozi (Laojun, "Tuhan Lao") dan Tiga Murni Ones di bagian atas jajaran dewa. [38] [39]

While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi , and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching , these have generally not become the objects of worship. Sementara sejumlah abadi atau tokoh misterius lainnya ditampilkan di Zhuangzi , dan untuk tingkat yang lebih rendah dalam Tao Te Ching , ini umumnya tidak menjadi objek ibadah. Traditional conceptions of Tao are not to be confused with the Western concepts of theism and monotheism . konsepsi tradisional Tao tidak menjadi bingung dengan konsep-konsep Barat teisme dan monoteisme . Being one with the Tao does not indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu sense, but rather living in accordance with nature. [ 19 ] [ 27 ] Sebagai salah satu dengan Tao tidak menunjukkan persatuan dengan roh kekal dalam arti Hindu, melainkan hidup sesuai dengan alam. [19] [27]

[ edit ] Ethics [ sunting ] Etika

The Three Jewels, or Three Treasures, (Chinese: 三寶 ; pinyin: sānbǎo; Wade-Giles: san-pao) are basic virtues in Taoism. The Jewels Tiga, atau Tiga Treasures, (Cina: 三宝; pinyin: sānbǎo; Wade-Giles: san-pao) adalah kebajikan dasar dalam Taoisme. The Three Jewels are compassion, moderation, and humility. Tiga Permata adalah kasih sayang, moderasi, dan kerendahan hati. They are also translated as kindness, simplicity (or the absence of excess), and modesty. Mereka juga diterjemahkan sebagai kebaikan, kesederhanaan (atau tidak adanya kelebihan), dan kesopanan. Arthur Waley describes them as "[t]he three rules that formed the practical, political side of the author's teaching". Arthur Waley menggambarkan mereka sebagai "[t] ia tiga aturan yang membentuk sisi, praktis politik pengajaran penulis". He correlated the Three Treasures with "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority". [ 40 ] Dia berkorelasi Tiga Treasures dengan "abstain dari perang agresif dan hukuman mati", "kesederhanaan mutlak hidup", dan "penolakan untuk menegaskan otoritas aktif". [40]

[ edit ] Sexuality [ sunting ] Seksualitas

In the Taoist view of sexuality the body is viewed as a positive asset, and mind and body are not set in contrast or opposition with each other. Dalam pandangan Tao seksualitas tubuh dipandang sebagai aset yang positif, dan pikiran dan tubuh yang tidak diatur dalam kontras atau oposisi satu sama lain. Sex is treated as a vital component to romantic love; however, Taoism emphasizes the need for self-control and moderation. Seks diperlakukan sebagai komponen penting untuk romantis cinta, namun, Taoisme menekankan perlunya pengendalian diri dan moderasi. In Taoism, sex was encouraged. Dalam Taoisme, seks adalah didorong. Complete abstinence is frequently treated as equally dangerous as excessive sexual indulgence. Lengkap pantang sering diperlakukan sebagai sama berbahayanya dengan kesenangan seksual yang berlebihan. Taoists believe that a man may increase and nourish his own vitality by bringing a woman to orgasm. Taoisme percaya bahwa seorang pria dapat meningkatkan dan memelihara vitalitas sendiri dengan membawa seorang wanita untuk orgasme. The female's orgasm activates and strengthens her jing , which has a nourishing and balancing effect on that of the male. betina orgasme The mengaktifkan dan memperkuat nya jing , yang memiliki dan menyeimbangkan efek bergizi pada yang jantan. The energy released during either one's orgasm can be harnessed and led up the Governor vessel/channel to nourish the brain, for additional benefit to the longevity of that partner. [ 41 ] Energi yang dilepaskan selama orgasme seseorang bisa dimanfaatkan dan menuju kapal Gubernur / saluran untuk memberi makan otak, untuk manfaat tambahan umur panjang pasangan itu. [41]

The Chinese government prefers the celibate model of Buddhism for Taoist clergy. Quanzhen clergy take vows of celibacy, but Zhengyi clergy are often married, and often reside at home. Para Cina pemerintah lebih suka model selibat dari Buddhisme untuk pendeta Tao. QuanZhen ulama mengambil sumpah selibat, tetapi ZhengYi klerus sering menikah, dan sering berada di rumah. They are called sanju Taoshi , or "Taoist priests who live at home." Mereka disebut Sanju Taoshi, atau "imam Tao yang tinggal di rumah." Numbering in the tens of thousands, the sanju Taoshi perform rituals for their local communities. [ 42 ] [ unreliable source? ] Penomoran dalam puluhan ribu, yang Taoshi Sanju melakukan ritual bagi masyarakat lokal mereka. [42] [ sumber tidak bisa diandalkan? ]

[ edit ] Scripture [ sunting ] Kitab Suci

Taoist Priest in Macau , February 2006 Tao Imam di Macau , Februari 2006

[ edit ] Tao Te Ching [ sunting ] Tao Te Ching

The Tao Te Ching , or Daodejing , is widely regarded to be the most influential Taoist text. [ 43 ] The title means "The Classic of the Way and Its Power or Virtue". Tao Te Ching, atau Daodejing, secara luas dianggap sebagai teks Tao yang paling berpengaruh. [43] Judul berarti "Classic dari Bima dan Its Power atau Kebajikan". It is a foundational scripture of central importance in Taoism purportedly written by Lao Tzu sometime in the 3rd or 4th centuries BCE. [ 44 ] [ unreliable source? ] However, the precise date that it was written is still the subject of debate: there are those who put it anywhere from the 6th century to the 3rd century BCE. [ 45 ] It has been used as a ritual text throughout the history of religious Taoism. [ 46 ] Ini adalah tulisan suci dasar penting sentral dalam Taoisme konon ditulis oleh Lao Tzu kira pada abad ke-3 atau 4 SM. [44] [ sumber tidak bisa diandalkan? ] Namun, tanggal tepat bahwa itu ditulis masih menjadi subyek perdebatan: ada mereka yang meletakkan di mana saja dari abad ke-6 ke 3 SM abad. [45] Ia telah digunakan sebagai teks ritual sepanjang sejarah agama Taoisme. [46]

Taoist commentators have deeply considered the opening lines of the Tao Te Ching . komentator Tao telah sangat dipertimbangkan baris pembukaan dari Tao Te Ching. They are widely discussed in both academic and mainstream literature. Mereka banyak dibahas dalam baik literatur akademis dan mainstream. A common interpretation is similar to Korzybski 's observation that " the map is not the territory ". [ 47 ] The opening lines, with literal and common translation, are: Sebuah penafsiran umum adalah mirip dengan Korzybski pengamatan s 'bahwa " peta bukanlah wilayah . " [47] garis Pembukaan, dengan dan umum terjemahan harfiah, adalah:

道可道,非常道。 (Tao (way or path) can be said, not usual way) 道可道,非常道. (Tao (cara atau jalan) dapat dikatakan, tidak seperti biasa)
"The Way that can be described is not the true Way." "Jalan yang bisa dijelaskan bukanlah Jalan yang benar."
名可名,非常名。 (names can be named, not usual names) 名可名,非常名. (Nama bisa diberi nama, bukan nama biasa)
"The Name that can be named is not the constant Name." "Nama yang dapat diberi nama bukan Nama konstan."

Tao literally means "path" or "way" and can figuratively mean "essential nature", "destiny", "principle", or "true path". Tao secara harfiah berarti "jalan" atau "jalan" dan kiasan bisa berarti "sifat penting", "takdir", "prinsip", atau "jalan yang benar". The philosophical and religious "Tao" is infinite, without limitation. Filosofis dan agama "Tao" yang tak terbatas, tanpa batasan. One view states that the paradoxical opening is intended to prepare the reader for teachings about the unteachable Tao. [ 48 ] Tao is believed to be transcendent , indistinct and without form. Salah satu pandangan menyatakan bahwa pembukaan paradoks ini dimaksudkan untuk mempersiapkan pembaca untuk ajaran-ajaran tentang Tao unteachable. [48] Tao diyakini transenden , tak jelas dan tanpa bentuk. Hence, it cannot be named or categorized. Oleh karena itu, tidak dapat diberi nama atau dikategorikan. Even the word "Tao" can be considered a dangerous temptation to make Tao a limiting "name". [ 49 ] Bahkan kata "Tao" dapat dianggap sebagai godaan yang berbahaya untuk membuat Tao sebuah "membatasi" nama. [49]

The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. Tao Te Ching tidak tematik dipesan. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference. [ 50 ] The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Namun, tema utama dari teks yang berulang kali dinyatakan menggunakan formulasi varian, sering dengan hanya sedikit perbedaan. [50] Tema utama berkisar pada sifat Tao dan bagaimana mencapainya. Tao is said to be unnameable and accomplishing great things through small means. [ 51 ] There is significant debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferred, and which particular translation methodology is best. Tao dikatakan unnameable dan mencapai hal-hal besar melalui sarana kecil. [51] Ada perdebatan signifikan tentang yang terjemahan bahasa Inggris dari Tao Te Ching lebih disukai, dan yang terjemahan metodologi tertentu adalah yang terbaik. Discussions and disputes about various translations of the Tao Te Ching can become acrimonious, involving deeply entrenched views. [ 52 ] Diskusi dan perselisihan tentang berbagai terjemahan Tao Te Ching bisa menjadi sengit, melibatkan sangat pandangan berurat. [52]

Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. komentar Kuno di Tao Te Ching adalah teks-teks penting di kanan mereka sendiri. The Heshang Gong commentary was most likely written in the 2nd century CE, and as perhaps the oldest commentary, contains the edition of the Tao Te Ching that was transmitted to the present day. [ 53 ] Other important commentaries include the Xiang'er , one of the most important texts from the Way of the Celestial Masters , and Wang Bi's commentary. [ 54 ] The Heshang Gong komentar kemungkinan besar ditulis pada abad ke 2, dan mungkin komentar tertua, berisi edisi Tao Te Ching yang ditransmisikan sampai hari ini. [53] komentar penting lainnya meliputi Xiang'er , salah satu dari teks yang paling penting dari Jalan Masters Surgawi , dan Wang Bi komentar. [54]

[ edit ] Zhuangzi [ sunting ] Zhuangzi

The Zhuangzi ( 莊子 ) is traditionally attributed to a Taoist sage of the same name, but this has recently been disputed in western academia. The Zhuangzi (庄子) secara tradisional dikaitkan dengan bijak Tao dengan nama yang sama, tetapi hal ini baru-baru ini diperdebatkan di kalangan akademisi Barat. Zhuangzi also appears as a character in the book's narrative. Zhuangzi juga muncul sebagai karakter dalam cerita buku ini. The Zhuangzi contains prose, poetry, humour and disputation. The Zhuangzi berisi prosa, puisi, humor dan perdebatan. The book often is seen as complex and paradoxical as the arguments and subjects of discussion are not those common to classical Western philosophy, such as the doctrine of Name Rectification (Zhengming) and correctly making "this/not-this" distinctions (shi/fei). [ citation needed ] Among the cast of characters in the Zhuangzi's stories is Confucius . Buku ini sering dilihat sebagai kompleks dan paradoks sebagai argumen dan subyek dari diskusi tidak yang umum untuk filsafat Barat klasik, seperti doktrin Nama Rektifikasi (Zhengming) dan benar membuat "ini / tidak-ini" pembedaan (shi / fei ). [ rujukan? ] Di antara tokoh karakter dalam Zhuangzi's cerita adalah Konfusius .

[ edit ] Daozang [ sunting ] Daozang

The Daozang ( 道藏 , Treasury of Tao ) is sometimes referred to as the Taoist canon. The Daozang (道藏, Treasury Tao) kadang-kadang disebut sebagai kanon Tao. It was originally compiled during the Jin , Tang , and Song dynasties. Awalnya disusun selama Jin , Tang , dan Song dinasti. The version surviving today was published during the Ming dynasty. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts . [ 57 ] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripitaka , it is divided into three dong ( , "caves", "grottoes"). Versi yang masih hidup hari ini diterbitkan selama Ming dinasti. [55] [56] The Daozang Ming mencakup hampir 1.500 teks . [57] Mengikuti contoh Buddha Tripitaka , itu dibagi menjadi tiga dong (洞, "gua", " gua-gua "). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest": [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Mereka diatur dari "tertinggi" untuk "terendah": [58] [59]

  1. The Zhen ("real" or "truth" ) grotto. The Zhen ("nyata" atau "kebenaran" 眞) gua. Includes the Shangqing texts. Termasuk Shangqing teks.
  2. The Xuan ("mystery" ) grotto. The Xuan ("misteri" 玄) gua. Includes the Lingbao scriptures. Termasuk Lingbao suci.
  3. The Shen ("divine" ) grotto. The Shen ("ilahi" 神) gua. Includes texts predating the Maoshan ( 茅山 ) revelations. Termasuk teks mendahului Maoshan (茅山) wahyu.

Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. Daoshi umumnya tidak berkonsultasi versi diterbitkan dari Daozang, tetapi secara individu memilih, atau mewarisi, teks termasuk dalam Daozang tersebut. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student. [ 60 ] Teks-teks ini telah diwariskan dari generasi ke generasi dari guru kepada siswa. [60]

The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. Sekolah Shangqing memiliki tradisi mendekati Taoisme melalui studi kitab suci. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality. [ 61 ] Hal ini diyakini bahwa dengan membaca teks-teks tertentu cukup sering satu akan dihargai dengan keabadian. [61]

[ edit ] Other texts [ sunting ] Teks-teks lain

While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other important texts in traditional Taoism including Mohism . Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and ethics , and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries. [ 62 ] It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. Sedangkan Tao Te Ching yang paling terkenal, ada banyak teks-teks penting lainnya dalam Taoisme tradisional, termasuk Mohism Pian Taishang. Ganying ("Treatise dari Ta'ala One Response dan Retribusi") membahas dosa dan etika , dan telah menjadi saluran moralitas populer di beberapa abad terakhir. [62] Hal ini menegaskan bahwa mereka selaras dengan Tao akan hidup dan berbuah umur panjang. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives. [ 51 ] Both the Taiping Jing ("Scripture on Great Peace") and the Baopuzi ("Book of the Master Who Keeps to Simplicity") contain early alchemical formulas that early Taoists believed could lead to immortality. [ 63 ] [ 64 ] Orang fasik, dan keturunan mereka, akan menderita dan mempunyai masa singkat. [51] Baik Taiping Jing ("Alkitab tentang Great Perdamaian") dan Baopuzi ("Kitab Guru Siapa Menyimpan untuk Kesederhanaan") mengandung formula alkimia awal bahwa awal Tao diyakini bisa menimbulkan keabadian. [63] [64]

[ edit ] History [ sunting ] Sejarah

White Cloud Monastery, Beijing Awan putih Biara, Beijing

Some forms of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] Lao-Tzu is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original", or "primordial", Taoism. [ 39 ] Lao-Tzu received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE. [ 67 ] Taoism gained official status in China during the Tang Dynasty, whose emperors claimed Lao-Tzu as their relative. [ 68 ] Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong , were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang. [ 69 ] Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. [ 70 ] The Qing Dynasty, however, much favored Confucian classics and rejected Taoist works. Beberapa bentuk Taoisme dapat ditelusuri untuk agama rakyat prasejarah di Cina yang kemudian menyatu menjadi sebuah tradisi Tao. [65] [66] Lao-Tzu secara tradisional dianggap sebagai pendiri Taoisme dan terkait erat dalam konteks ini dengan "asli", atau "primordial", Taoisme. [39] Lao-Tzu menerima pengakuan kekaisaran sebagai dewa pada pertengahan abad ke-2 SM di-. [67] Taoisme memperoleh status resmi di China selama Dinasti Tang, yang kaisar mengklaim Lao-Tzu sebagai relatif mereka . [68] Beberapa kaisar Song, terutama Huizong , aktif dalam mempromosikan Taoisme, mengumpulkan teks Tao dan edisi penerbitan Daozang itu. [69] Aspek Konfusianisme, Taoisme, dan Buddhisme yang sadar disintesis dalam Neo-Konfusianisme sekolah, yang akhirnya menjadi Imperial ortodoksi untuk keperluan birokrasi negara. [70] Dinasti Qing, bagaimanapun, banyak disukai klasik Konfusianisme dan ditolak bekerja Tao. During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books. [ 71 ] By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism had fallen so much from favor, that only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing. [ 72 ] Taoism is one of five religions recognised by the People's Republic of China and regulates its activities through a state bureaucracy (the China Taoist Association). [ 73 ] Selama abad ke 18, perpustakaan kekaisaran dilantik, tetapi tidak termasuk hampir semua buku Tao. [71] Pada awal abad ke-20, Taoisme telah jatuh begitu banyak peminat, bahwa hanya satu salinan lengkap dari Daozang masih tetap, di Biara Awan Putih di Beijing. [72] Tao adalah salah satu dari lima agama yang diakui oleh Republik Rakyat China dan mengatur kegiatannya melalui birokrasi negara (Cina Tao Association). [73]

[ edit ] Adherents [ sunting ] Penganut

The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism. Jumlah Tao sulit untuk memperkirakan, karena berbagai faktor termasuk mendefinisikan Taoisme. The number of people practicing Chinese folk religion is estimated to be just under four hundred million. [ 74 ] Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition. Jumlah orang yang mempraktikkan agama rakyat Cina diperkirakan hanya di bawah empat ratus juta. [74] Kebanyakan orang-orang China dan banyak lainnya telah dipengaruhi dalam beberapa cara oleh tradisi Tao. Estimates for the number of Taoists worldwide range from twenty million and possibly to as many as 400 million in China alone. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] [ 77 ] Perkiraan untuk jumlah seluruh dunia berkisar Tao dari dua puluh juta dan mungkin untuk sebanyak 400 juta di Cina saja. [75] [76] [77]

Taoism as with other religions in China have been oppressed and discouraged during the Cultural Revolution , thus the number of Taoists today greatly declined from the pre-Communist China. [ citation needed ] Taoisme sebagai dengan agama-agama lain di China telah tertindas dan putus asa selama Revolusi Kebudayaan , sehingga jumlah Tao hari ini sangat menurun dari pra-Komunis China. [ rujukan? ]

Recently, there have been some efforts to revive the practice of Taoist religion. Baru-baru ini, ada beberapa upaya untuk menghidupkan kembali praktik agama Tao. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association was formed, and received official approval in 1957. Pada tahun 1956, orang Cina Tao Asosiasi dibentuk, dan menerima persetujuan resmi pada tahun 1957. It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao, but reestablished in 1980. Ini dibubarkan selama Revolusi Kebudayaan dibawah Mao, tapi dibangun kembali pada tahun 1980. The headquarters of the Association are at Baiyun guan, or White Cloud Temple , of the Longmen branch of Quanzhen. [ 78 ] Markas besar Asosiasi di guan Baiyun, atau White Cloud Temple , cabang Longmen dari QuanZhen. [78]

Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China , Taiwan , Malaysia , Singapore , and various Chinese diaspora communities. Secara geografis, Taoisme berkembang terbaik di kawasan yang oleh orang Tionghoa: Cina daratan , Taiwan , Malaysia , Singapura , dan berbagai diaspora Cina masyarakat. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea , Japan , and Vietnam . Tao sastra dan seni telah mempengaruhi budaya Korea , Jepang , dan Vietnam . Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following, except in Korea (eg see Kouk Sun Do ) and Vietnam, until modern times. Diselenggarakan Taoisme tampaknya tidak memiliki menarik perhatian non-Cina yang besar, kecuali di Korea (misalnya lihat Kouk Sun Jangan ) dan Vietnam, hingga zaman modern. In Taiwan 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify themselves as Taoists. [ 79 ] In Singapore , 8.5% of the population identify themselves as Taoist. [ 80 ] There are also small numbers of Taoists in the Western world. Dalam Taiwan 7,5 juta orang (33% dari populasi) mengidentifikasi diri mereka sebagai Tao. [79] Di Singapura , 8,5% dari populasi mengidentifikasi diri mereka sebagai Tao. [80] Ada juga sejumlah kecil Tao di dunia Barat.

[ edit ] Practices [ sunting ] Praktek

At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the spirits of the deceased and/or the gods, such as during the Qingming Festival . Pada tanggal tertentu, makanan bisa ditetapkan sebagai kurban kepada roh-roh yang meninggal dan / atau para dewa, seperti pada Festival Qingming . This may include slaughtered animals, such as pigs and ducks, or fruit. Ini mungkin termasuk hewan disembelih, seperti babi dan bebek, atau buah. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper , or Hell Bank Notes , on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones. Bentuk lain dari pengorbanan melibatkan pembakaran kertas Joss , atau Neraka Bank Notes , dengan asumsi bahwa gambar sehingga dikonsumsi oleh api akan muncul kembali-bukan sebagai gambar belaka, tetapi yang sebenarnya item-di dunia roh, membuatnya tersedia untuk leluhur dihormati dan meninggalkan orang yang dicintai. At other points, a vegan diet or full fast may be observed. Pada poin lain, vegan diet atau cepat penuh dapat diamati.

Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. Juga pada hari libur tertentu, parade jalan berlangsung. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. Ini adalah urusan hidup yang selalu melibatkan petasan dan bunga-tertutup mengapung penyiaran musik tradisional. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances ; human-occupied puppets (often of the " Seventh Lord " and " Eighth Lord "); tongji ( 童乩 "spirit-medium; shaman") who cut their skin with knives; Bajiajiang , which are Kungfu -practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and palanquins carrying god-images. Mereka juga termasuk berbagai tarian singa dan tarian naga , yang diduduki boneka manusia (sering dari " Tuhan Ketujuh "dan" Kedelapan Tuhan "); Tongji (童乩 "roh-menengah; dukun") yang memotong kulit mereka dengan pisau; Bajiajiang , yang Kungfu -praktisi penjaga kehormatan di makeup iblis, dan tandu yang membawa dewa-gambar. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question. [ 81 ] Berbagai peserta tidak dianggap sebagai pemain, melainkan dimiliki oleh para dewa dan roh-roh tersebut. [81]

Fortune-telling —including astrology , I Ching , and other forms of divination —has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered in some sects. Fortune-telling -termasuk astrologi , I Ching , dan bentuk lain dari ramalan -telah lama dianggap sebagai pengejaran Tao tradisional. Mediumship juga banyak ditemui di beberapa sekte. There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji ) and the spirit-writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing . [ 82 ] Ada perbedaan sosial dan akademik antara bentuk bela diri mediumship (seperti Tongji) dan roh-tulisan yang biasanya dilakukan melalui tulisan Papan kayu . [82]

Many Taoists also participate in the study, analysis and writing of books. Banyak Tao juga berpartisipasi dalam analisis, studi dan menulis buku. Taoists of this type tend to be civil servants, elderly retirees, or in modern times, university faculty. Tao jenis ini cenderung PNS, pensiunan tua, atau di zaman modern, fakultas universitas. While there is considerable overlap with religious Taoism, there are often important divergences in interpretation. Sementara ada tumpang tindih dengan Taoisme agama, sering ada perbedaan penting dalam penafsiran. For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on the Laozi (and Yijing ), was a Confucian. [ 83 ] Sebagai contoh, Wang Bi, salah satu komentator filsafat yang paling berpengaruh pada Laozi (dan Yijing ), adalah seorang Khonghucu. [83]

A number of martial arts traditions, particularly T'ai Chi Ch'uan , Bagua Zhang , Wing Chun , Won Yuen Yat Hey Jueng, Bak Mei Pai, Bok Fou Pai, Yaw Gong Moon and Xing Yi Quan , embody Taoist principles to a greater or lesser extent, and some practitioners consider their art to be a means of practicing Taoism. [ 84 ] Sejumlah tradisi seni bela diri, khususnya T'ai Chi ch'uan , Bagua Zhang , Wing Chun , Won Yuen Yat Hei Jueng, Bak Mei Pai, Bok Fou Pai, Yaw Gong Bulan dan Xing Yi Quan , mewujudkan prinsip-prinsip Tao ke yang lebih besar atau tingkat yang lebih kecil, dan beberapa praktisi menganggap seni mereka untuk menjadi sarana berlatih Taoisme. [84]

[ edit ] Taoist symbols and images [ sunting ] Tao simbol dan gambar

Taoist charm from Tien Hau Temple in San Francisco Pesona Tao dari Tien Hau Temple di San Francisco

The Taijitu (" yin and yang ") symbol 太極圖 as well as the Ba gua八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are associated with Taoist symbolism. [ 85 ] While almost all Taoist organizations make use of the yin and yang symbol, one could also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. The Taijitu (" yin dan yang ") simbol 太极图 serta gua Ba八卦("Delapan Trigram") berhubungan dengan simbolisme Tao. [85] Sementara hampir semua organisasi Tao memanfaatkan yin dan yang simbol, orang bisa juga menyebutnya Konfusianisme, Neo-Konfusianisme atau pan-Cina. The yin and yang make an "S" shape, with yin (black or red) on the right. Yin dan yang membuat "S" bentuk, dengan yin (hitam atau merah) di sebelah kanan. One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. Salah satunya adalah cenderung melihat simbol ini sebagai dekorasi pada bendera organisasi Tao dan logo, lantai kuil, atau dijahit menjadi jubah ulama. According to Song Dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century. [ 86 ] Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon. [ 86 ] Menurut sumber-sumber Dinasti Song, ia berasal sekitar abad ke-10. [86] Sebelumnya, yin dan yang telah dilambangkan oleh harimau dan naga. [86]

Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. kuil Tao mungkin terbang bendera persegi atau segitiga. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc. [ 87 ] Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves. [ 88 ] Mereka biasanya fitur tulisan mistik atau diagram dan dimaksudkan untuk memenuhi berbagai fungsi termasuk memberikan petunjuk bagi roh-roh orang mati, untuk membawa nasib baik, awet, dll [87] bendera dan spanduk lain mungkin mereka para dewa atau abadi sendiri. [88]

A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the Bushel, the Chinese equivalent). Sebuah zigzag dengan tujuh bintang kadang-kadang ditampilkan, yang mewakili Big Dipper (atau gantang, setara dengan Cina). In the Shang dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while during the Han dynasty , it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi . [ 89 ] Dalam Dinasti Shang yang Biduk dianggap dewa, sedangkan selama dinasti Han , itu dianggap sebagai jalan qi dewa sirkumpolar, Taiyi. [89]

Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature Chinese dragons and phoenix made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. kuil Taoisme di Cina selatan dan Taiwan sering dapat diidentifikasi oleh atap rumah mereka, yang menampilkan naga Cina dan phoenix yang terbuat dari keramik berwarna ubin-multi. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). Mereka juga berdiri untuk keharmonisan yin dan yang (dengan phoenix yin yang). A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master. [ 90 ] In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it from other structures. [ 91 ] Sebuah simbol yang terkait adalah mutiara berapi yang dapat dilihat pada atap seperti antara dua naga, serta pada jepit rambut dari seorang Guru Surgawi. [90] Secara umum meskipun, Cina arsitektur Tao tidak memiliki fitur universal yang membedakannya dari struktur lainnya. [91]

[ edit ] Relations with other religions and philosophies [ sunting ] Hubungan dengan agama-agama lain dan filsafat

Confucianism , Taoism, and Buddhism are one , a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, Song Dynasty . Konfusianisme , Taoisme, dan Buddhisme adalah satu, sebuah lukisan dengan gaya litang menggambarkan tiga orang tertawa oleh aliran sungai, abad ke-12, Dinasti Song .

The terms Tao and De are religious and philosophical terms shared between Taoism and Confucianism. [ 92 ] The authorship of the Tao Te Ching is assigned to Laozi , who is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius. [ 93 ] However, some scholars believe the Tao Te Ching arose as a reaction to Confucianism. [ 94 ] Zhuangzi , reacting to the Confucian- Mohist ethical disputes in his "history of thought", casts Laozi as a prior step to the Mohists by name and the Confucians by implication. Tao istilah dan De berada dan filosofis istilah-istilah agama dibagi antara Taoisme dan Konfusianisme. [92] Penulisan dari Tao Te Ching ditugaskan untuk Laozi , yang secara tradisional diadakan telah menjadi guru Konfusius. [93] Namun, beberapa sarjana percaya bahwa Tao Te Ching muncul sebagai reaksi terhadap Konfusianisme. [94] Zhuangzi , bereaksi terhadap Konfusius- Mohist perselisihan etis dalam "nya" sejarah pemikiran, melemparkan Laozi sebagai langkah sebelum Mohists dengan nama dan Konghucu dengan implikasi.

Early Taoist texts reject the basic assumptions of Confucianism which relied on rituals and order, in favour of the examples of "wild" nature and individualism. Awal Taoisme teks menolak asumsi dasar Konfusianisme yang didasarkan pada ritual dan ketertiban, dalam mendukung contoh alam "liar" dan individualisme. Historical Taoists challenged conventional morality, while Confucians considered society debased and in need of strong ethical guidance. [ 95 ] Sejarah Tao menantang moralitas konvensional, sementara dianggap masyarakat Khonghucu direndahkan dan yang membutuhkan panduan etika yang kuat. [95]

The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by interaction and syncretism , with Taoism in particular. [ 96 ] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary. [ 97 ] Chan Buddhism was particularly modified by Taoism, integrating distrust of scripture, text and even language, as well as the Taoist views of embracing "this life", dedicated practice and the "every-moment". [ 98 ] Taoism incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang period , such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organisation. Masuknya agama Buddha ke Cina ditandai oleh interaksi dan sinkretisme , dengan Taoisme pada khususnya. [96] Awalnya dilihat sebagai semacam "Taoisme asing",'s suci Buddhisme diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Cina menggunakan kosakata Tao. [97] Chan Buddhisme terutama dimodifikasi oleh Taoisme, mengintegrasikan ketidakpercayaan terhadap Kitab Suci, teks dan bahkan bahasa, serta pandangan Tao merangkul "kehidupan", praktek berdedikasi dan "setiap saat-". [98] Taoisme dimasukkan unsur Buddha selama periode Tang , seperti sebagai biara, vegetarian, larangan alkohol, doktrin dari kekosongan, dan kitab suci mengumpulkan dalam organisasi tripartit. During the same time, Chan Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism. [ 99 ] Christine Mollier concluded that a number of Buddhist sutras found in medieval East Asia and Central Asia adopted many materials from earlier Taoist scriptures. [ 100 ] Selama waktu yang sama, Chan Buddhisme berkembang menjadi sekte terbesar di Buddhisme Cina. [99] Christine Mollier menyimpulkan bahwa sejumlah Buddha sutra ditemukan di abad pertengahan Asia Timur dan Asia Tengah diadopsi banyak bahan dari tulisan suci Tao sebelumnya. [100]

Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another. [ 101 ] They also share some similar values, with all three embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. Ideologis dan saingan politik selama berabad-abad, Taoisme, Konfusianisme, dan Buddha sangat dipengaruhi satu sama lain. [101] Mereka juga berbagi beberapa nilai yang sama, dengan ketiga merangkul humanis menekankan filosofi perilaku moral dan kesempurnaan manusia. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. [ 102 ] This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school. [ 103 ] Dalam waktu, Cina kebanyakan orang diidentifikasi sampai batas tertentu dengan ketiga tradisi secara bersamaan. [102] dilembagakan saat ini menjadi aspek dari tiga sekolah disintesis di sekolah Neo-Konfusianisme. [103]

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Arthur Schopenhauer both wrote of Taoism. [ 104 ] Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel dan Arthur Schopenhauer baik menulis tentang Taoisme. [104]

Mirza Tahir Ahmad , the fourth Caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in his book Revelation, Rationality, Knowledge & Truth sees Taoism in its earliest form as a monotheistic religion divinely revealed to Prophets, the message of which gradually detoriated over many centuries into what is seen today. Mirza Tahir Ahmad , keempat Khalifah dari Jamaah Muslim Ahmadiyah dalam bukunya Wahyu, Rasionalitas, Pengetahuan & Kebenaran melihat Taoisme dalam bentuk awal sebagai sebuah agama monoteistik ilahi dinyatakan kepada nabi, pesan yang secara bertahap detoriated selama berabad-abad ke dalam apa yang dilihat hari ini. In terms of this he relates Taoism and other Chinese traditional religions with modern traditional Religions such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam. [ 105 ] Dalam hal ini ia berkaitan Taoisme dan agama tradisional Cina dengan Agama tradisional modern seperti Yudaisme, Kristen dan Islam. [105]

[ edit ] In popular culture [ sunting ] Dalam budaya populer

Some characters in the US TV series " Kung Fu " often quoted Taoist sayings. [ 106 ] [ 107 ] Beberapa karakter dalam serial TV AS " Kung Fu "sering mengutip ucapan Tao. [106] [107]

Adherents of the religion Dudeism consider the character of "The Dude" in The Coen Brothers ' 1998 film " The Big Lebowski " to be a modern Taoist sage. [ 108 ] Penganut agama Dudeism mempertimbangkan karakter "The Dude" di The Coen Brothers film '1998 " The Big Lebowski "untuk menjadi bijak Tao modern. [108]

In the Nintendo DS games Pokémon Black and White , the pair of game mascots is based on the concept of yin and yang. Zekrom , mascot of Pokémon White Version , in based on yin (therefore being coloured black), and, as an Electric-type Pokémon, is the most agressive. Reshiram , who appears only in Pokémon Black Version , is based on yang (and coloured completely white) and its Fire-type characteristics demonstrate its softer look. Dalam Nintendo DS game Pokémon Hitam dan Putih , pasangan maskot permainan didasarkan pada konsep yin dan yang. Zekrom , maskot Pokémon White Versi, di berdasarkan yin (sehingga menjadi berwarna hitam), dan, sebagai Electric- tipe Pokémon, adalah yang paling agresif. Reshiram , yang muncul hanya di Pokémon Black Versi, didasarkan pada Yang (dan diwarnai sepenuhnya putih) dan jenisnya Fire-karakteristik menunjukkan lebih lembut melihat. Additionally, a third member of the "Tao Trio", Kyurem , is based on wuji and the concept of absolute zero , being, naturally, an Ice-type Pokémon. Selain itu, anggota ketiga dari "Tao Trio", Kyurem , didasarkan pada wuji dan konsep nol absolut , sedang, alami, sebuah tipe Pokémon Ice.

[ edit ] See also [ sunting ] Lihat pula

[ edit ] References [ sunting ] Referensi

[ edit ] Footnotes [ sunting ] Catatan kaki

  1. ^ Goodspeed (1983). ^ Goodspeed (1983).
  2. ^ Carr (1990, pp. 63-65). ^ Carr (1990, hal 63-65). Converting the various pronunciation respelling systems into IPA , British dictionaries (1933-1989, Table 3) give 9 /taʊ.ɪzəm/ , 2 /taʊ.ɪzəm, daʊ.ɪzəm/ , and 1 /daʊ.ɪzəm/ ; American dictionaries (1948-1987, Table 4) give 6 /daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm/ , 2 /taʊ.ɪzəm, daʊ.ɪzəm/ , 2 /taʊ.ɪzəm/ , and 1 /daʊ.ɪzəm/ .
  3. ^ Kohn (2000), pp. XI, XXIX.
  4. ^ Mair (2001) p. 174 174
  5. ^ Robinet (1997), p. ^ Robinet (1997), hal 3. 3.
  6. ^ Kirkland (2004) p. 2. 2.
  7. ^ Chad Hansen. "Taoism" . Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University . http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ . Retrieved 2008-10-01 . Diperoleh 2008/10/01.
  8. ^ Kohn (2000), p. ^ Kohn (2000), hal 44. 44.
  9. ^ Chad Hansen. "Taoism" . Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University . http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ . Retrieved 2008-10-01 . Diperoleh 2008/10/01.
  10. ^ a b Graham (1989) p. 170–171
  11. ^ a b c Robinet (1997), p. 103. 103.
  12. ^ Robinet (1997), p. ^ Robinet (1997), hal 3–4. 3-4.
  13. ^ Maspero (1981), p. ^ Maspero (1981), hal 211. 211.
  14. ^ Robinet (1997), p. ^ Robinet (1997), hal 1. 1.
  15. ^ DeFrancis (1996) p. 113 113
  16. ^ Chan (1963) p. 136 136
  17. ^ Hansen (1992), p. 206. 206.
  18. ^ Cane (2002), p. 13. 13.
  19. ^ a b Martinson (1987), pp. 168–169.
  20. ^ Keller (2003), p. 289. 289.
  21. ^ LaFargue (1994) p. 283. 283.
  22. ^ Sharot (2001), pp. 77–78, 88.
  23. ^ Maspero (1981), p. ^ Maspero (1981), hal 32. 32.
  24. ^ Kirkland (2004), p. 60. 60.
  25. ^ Jones (2004), p. 255. 255.
  26. ^ Oldmeadow (2007), p. 109. 109.
  27. ^ a b Faching & deChant (2001), p. 35. 35.
  28. ^ Slingerland (2003), p. 233. 233.
  29. ^ Kraemer (1986), p. 286. 286.
  30. ^ Carr & Zhang (2004), p. 209. 209.
  31. ^ Martin (2005), p. 15. 15.
  32. ^ Kohn (2000), p. ^ Kohn (2000), hal 825. 825.
  33. ^ Occhiogrosso (2004), p. 171. 171.
  34. ^ Kohn (2000), p. ^ Kohn (2000), hal 672. 672.
  35. ^ Robinet (1993) p. 228. 228.
  36. ^ Maspero (1981), p. ^ Maspero (1981), hal 92. 92.
  37. ^ Segal (2006), p. 50. 50.
  38. ^ Maspero (1981), p. ^ Maspero (1981), hal 41. 41.
  39. ^ a b Robinet (1997), p. 63. 63.
  40. ^ Waley (1958), p. 225. 225.
  41. ^ Pas and Leung (1998), pp. 280–81.
  42. ^ Patheos Library - Taoism: Modern Age
  43. ^ Miller (2003), p. ix ix
  44. ^ Patheos Library - Taoism
  45. ^ Eliade (1984), p. 26 26
  46. ^ Kohn & LaFargue (1998), p. 158. 158.
  47. ^ Barrett (2006), p. 40. 40.
  48. ^ Kim (2003), pp. 21–22
  49. ^ Kohn & LaFargue (1998), pp. 104.
  50. ^ Kim (2003), p. 13 13
  51. ^ a b Van Voorst (2005), p. 165 165
  52. ^ Kohn & LaFargue (1998), pp. 185–86.
  53. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 73. 73.
  54. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 74–77.
  55. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 1. 1.
  56. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 30. 30.
  57. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 36. 36.
  58. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 15. 15.
  59. ^ Litte (2000), p. 46 46
  60. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 44. 44.
  61. ^ Robinet (1997), p. ^ Robinet (1997), hal 132. 132.
  62. ^ Jordan: The Taoist Canon
  63. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 70–71.
  64. ^ Robinet (1997), p. ^ Robinet (1997), hal 73. 73.
  65. ^ Demerath (2003), p. 149. 149.
  66. ^ Hucker (1995), pp. 203–04.
  67. ^ Robinet (1997), p. ^ Robinet (1997), hal 50. 50.
  68. ^ Robinet (1997), p. ^ Robinet (1997), hal 184. 184.
  69. ^ Robinet (1997), p. ^ Robinet (1997), hal 213. 213.
  70. ^ Kohn (2000), p. ^ Kohn (2000), hal XVII. XVII.
  71. ^ Schipper (1993), p. 19. 19.
  72. ^ Schipper (1993), p. 220. 220.
  73. ^ Human Rights Without Frontiers "Religious Freedom in China in 2006" PDF (30.6 KB) An address given to the Delegation EU-China of the European Parliament.
  74. ^ Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents
  75. ^ Taoism
  76. ^ Religious adherent statistics
  77. ^ How Now Tao? . Asia Sentinel (2010-10-18). Retrieved on 2010-10-26. Diakses pada 2010/10/26.
  78. ^ Patheos Library - Taoism: Modern Age
  79. ^ International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Taiwan only)
  80. ^ Singapore Demographics Profile 2008
  81. ^ Schipper (1993), p. 28–29. 28-29.
  82. ^ Silvers (2005), p. 129–132.
  83. ^ Schipper (1993), p. 192. 192.
  84. ^ Silvers (2005), pp. 135–137
  85. ^ Little (2000), pp. 131–139
  86. ^ a b Little (2000), p. 131 131
  87. ^ Kohn (2004), p. 116. 116.
  88. ^ Kohn (2004), p. 119 119
  89. ^ Little (2000), p. 128 128
  90. ^ Schipper (1993), p. 21. 21.
  91. ^ Little (2000), p. 74 74
  92. ^ Markham & Ruparell (2001). p. p. 254. 254.
  93. ^ Hansen (2000). pp. 202, 210.
  94. ^ Fisher (1997). p. p. 167. 167.
  95. ^ Maspero (1981). p. p. 39. 39.
  96. ^ Maspero (1981). p. p. 46. 46.
  97. ^ Prebish (1975). p. p. 192. 192.
  98. ^ Dumoulin, Heisig & Knitter (2005). pp. 68, 70–73, 167–168.
  99. ^ Dumoulin, Heisig & Knitter (2005). pp. 166–167, 169–172.
  100. ^ Mollier (2008).
  101. ^ Markham & Ruparell (2001). pp. 248–249.
  102. ^ Windows on Asia Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University.
  103. ^ Moore (1967). pp. 133, 147.
  104. ^ as described for example, in Differences from Western Philosophy
  105. ^ Taoism . Alislam.org. Retrieved on 2010-10-26. Diakses pada 2010/10/26.
  106. ^ "We only know good because of evil" . YouTube. YouTube. August 26, 2008 . http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L156XHjoDL0&NR=1 .
  107. ^ Elizabeth Reninger (December 13, 2008). "The Tao Of Kung Fu" . About.com . http://taoism.about.com/b/2008/12/13/the-tao-of-kung-fu.htm .
  108. ^ Ben Walters. "Dudeism, the faith that abides in The Big Lebowski" . The Guardian . http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/jan/20/dudeism-the-big-lebowski . Retrieved December 2, 2010 . Diakses 2 Desember 2010.

[ edit ] Bibliography [ sunting ] Bibliografi

  • Balfour, Frederic Henry, tr. The Divine Classic of Nan-Hua; Being the Works of Chuang Tsze, Taoist Philosopher (Kelly & Walsh, 1881).
  • Barrett, Rick. Taijiquan: Through the Western Gate (Blue Snake Books, 2006). ISBN 1-58394-139-8 .
  • Cane, Eulalio Paul. Harmony: Radical Taoism Gently Applied (Trafford Publishing, 2002). ISBN 1-4122-4778-0 .
  • Carr, Michael (1990). "Whence the Pronunciation of Taoism ?". Dictionaries 12 : 55–74.
  • Carr, David T. & Zhang, Canhui. Space, Time, and Culture (Springer, 2004). ISBN 1-4020-2823-7 .
  • Chan Wing-tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton, 1963). ISBN 0-691-01964-9 .
  • Chang, Stephen T. The Great Tao (Tao Longevity LLC, 1985). ISBN 0-942196-01-5 . Chang, Stephen T. The Great Tao (Tao Longevity LLC, 1985). ISBN 0-942196-01-5 .
  • Demerath, Nicholas J. Crossing the Gods: World Religions and Worldly Politics (Rutgers University Press, 2003). ISBN 0-8135-3207-8 .
  • Dumoulin, Heinrich, Heisig, James W. & Knitter, Paul. Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) (World Wisdom, Inc, 2005). ISBN 0-941532-89-5 .
  • Eliade, Mircea. A History of Religious Ideas, Volume 2 . Translated by Willard R. Trask. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
  • Fasching, Darrell J. & deChant, Dell. Comparative Religious Ethics: a narrative approach (Blackwell Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0-631-20125-4 .
  • Fisher, Mary Pat. Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths (IB Tauris, 1997). ISBN 1-86064-148-2 .
  • Goodspeed, Bennett W. The Tao Jones Averages: A Guide to Whole-Brained Investing (EP Dutton, 1983).
  • Graham, Angus. Disputers of the Tao (Open Court, 1989) ISBN 0-8126-9087-7 .
  • Hansen, Chad D. A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical Interpretation (Oxford University Press, 2000). ISBN 0-19-513419-2 .
  • Hucker, Charles O. China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture (Stanford University Press, 1995). ISBN 0-8047-2353-2 .
  • Jones, Richard H. Mysticism and Morality: a new look at old questions (Lexington Books, 2004). ISBN 0-7391-0784-4 .
  • Keller, Catherine. The Face of the Deep: A Theology of Becoming (Routledge, 2003). ISBN 0-415-25648-8 .
  • Kim, Ha Poong. Reading Lao Tzu: A Companion to the Tao Te Ching With a New Translation (Xlibris Corporation, 2003). ISBN 1-4010-8316-1 .
  • Kirkland, Russel. Taoism: The Enduring Tradition (Routledge, 2004). ISBN 0-415-26322-0 .
  • Kohn, Livia, ed. Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
  • Kohn, Livia. The Daoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the Fengdao Kejie (New York: Oxford University Press 2004)
  • Kohn, Livia & LaFargue, Michael, ed. Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching (SUNY Press, 1998). ISBN 0-7914-3599-7 .
  • Komjathy, Louis. Handbooks for Daoist Practice. 10 vols. Hong Kong: Yuen Yuen Institute, 2008. Hong Kong: Institute Yuen Yuen, 2008.
  • Kraemer, Kenneth. World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions (Paulist Press, 1986). ISBN 0-8091-2781-4 .
  • LaFargue, Michael. Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching (SUNY Press. 1994) ISBN 0-7914-1601-1 .
  • Little, Stephen and Shawn Eichman, et al. Taoism and the Arts of China (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2000). ISBN 0-520-22784-0
  • Mair, Victor H. The Columbia History of Chinese Literature (Columbia University Press, 2001). ISBN 0-231-10984-9
  • Mair, Victor H. Experimental Essays on Chuang-tzu (Hawaii, 1983) ISBN 0-88706-967-3 .
  • Markham, Ian S. & Ruparell, Tinu. Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world (Blackwell Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0-631-20674-4 .
  • Martin, William. A Path And A Practice: Using Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching as a Guide to an Awakened Spiritual Life (Marlowe & Company, 2005). ISBN 1-56924-390-5 .
  • Martinson, Paul Varo. A theology of world religions: Interpreting God, self, and world in Semitic, Indian, and Chinese thought (Augsburg Publishing House, 1987). ISBN 0-8066-2253-9 .
  • Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. Taoism and Chinese Religion (University of Massachusetts Press, 1981). ISBN 0-87023-308-4
  • Miller, James. Daoism: A Short Introduction (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003). ISBN 1-85168-315-1
  • Mollier, Christine. Buddhism and Taoism Face to Face: Scripture, Ritual, and Iconographic Exchange in Medieval China . (University of Hawai'i Press, 2008). ISBN 0-8248-3169-1 .
  • Moore, Charles Alexander. The Chinese Mind: Essentials of Chinese Philosophy and Culture (University of Hawaii Press, 1967). ISBN 0-8248-0075-3 .
  • Occhiogrosso, Peter. The Joy of Sects (Doubleday, 1994). ISBN 0-385-42564-3
  • Pas, Julian F. & Leung, Man Kam. Historical Dictionary of Taoism (Scarecrow Press, 1998). ISBN 0-8108-3369-7 .
  • Prebish, Charles. Buddhism: A Modern Perspective (Penn State Press, 1975). ISBN 0-271-01195-5 .
  • Robinet, Isabelle. Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993 [original French 1989]).
  • Robinet, Isabelle. Taoism: Growth of a Religion (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997 [original French 1992]). ISBN 0-8047-2839-9
  • Segal, Robert Alan. The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion (Blackwell Publishing, 2006). ISBN 0-631-23216-8 .
  • Schipper, Kristopher. The Taoist Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993 [original French version 1982]).
  • Schipper, Kristopher and Franciscus Verellen. The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the Daozang (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2004).
  • Sharot, Stephen. A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion (New York: NYU Press, 2001). ISBN 0-8147-9805-5 .
  • Silvers, Brock. The Taoist Manual (Honolulu: Sacred Mountain Press, 2005).
  • Slingerland, Edward Gilman. Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China (Oxford University Press, 2003). ISBN 0-19-513899-6 .
  • Van Voorst, Robert E. Anthology of World Scriptures (Thomson Wadsworth, 2005). ISBN 0-534-52099-5 .
  • Waley, Arthur. The Way and Its Power: A Study of the Tao Te Ching and Its Place in Chinese Thought (Grove Press, 1958). ISBN 0-8021-5085-3 .

[ edit ] Further reading [ sunting ] Bacaan lebih lanjut

  • Kirkland, Russell. Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. London and New York: Routledge, 2004.
  • Kohn, Livia. The Taoist Experience: An Anthology (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993).
  • Komjathy, Louis. Handbooks for Daoist Practice. 10 vols. Hong Kong: Yuen Yuen Institute, 2008. Hong Kong: Institute Yuen Yuen, 2008.
  • Miller, James. Miller, James. Daoism: A Short Introduction (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003). ISBN 1-85168-315-1
  • Saso, Michael R. Taoism and the Rite of Cosmic Renewal (2nd ed., Washington State University Press, 1990). ISBN 978-0-87422-054-4
  • Sivin, Nathan. Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968)
  • Sommer, Deborah. Chinese Religion: An Anthology of Sources (Oxford University Press, 1995) ISBN 0-19-508895-6
  • Welch, H. and Seidel, A., Facets of Taoism (Yale University Press, 1979)
  • Hilmar Klaus: The Tao of Wisdom. Laozi - Daodejing. Chinese-English-German. Aachen: Hochschulverlag 600 p. 2009 ISBN 978-3-8107-0055-1
  • Daoism entry from the Center for Daoist Studies
  • Short History of Daoism from Daoist Studies website
Popular (non-academic) interpretations of Taoism

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