From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dari Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas
Jainism ( Jainisme ( 
/ ˈ dʒ eɪ n ɪ z əm / ) is an Indian religion that prescribes pacifism and a path of non-violence towards all living beings. / dʒ eɪ n ɪ z əm / ) adalah agama India yang mengatur pasifisme dan jalur non-kekerasan terhadap semua makhluk hidup. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation . filsafat dan praktiknya menekankan perlunya diri-upaya untuk memindahkan jiwa menuju kesadaran ilahi dan pembebasan . Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called Jina (Conqueror or Victor). Setiap jiwa yang telah menaklukkan musuh batin sendiri dan mencapai negara yang tertinggi yang disebut Jina (Penakluk atau Victor). Jainism is also referred to as Shraman (self-reliant) Dharma or the religion of Nirgantha (who does not have attachments and aversions) by ancient texts. Jainisme juga disebut sebagai Shraman (mandiri) Dharma atau agama Nirgantha (yang tidak memiliki lampiran dan penolakan) oleh teks-teks kuno. Jainism is commonly referred to as Jain Dharma in Hindi and Samanam in Tamil . Jainisme sering disebut sebagai Jain Dharma dalam bahasa Hindi dan Samanam di Tamil .
Jain doctrine teaches that Jainism has always existed and will always exist, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Historians date the foundation of organized Jainism to sometime between the 9th and the 6th centuries BCE . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Some have speculated that the religion may have its roots in much earlier times, reflecting native spirituality prior to the Indo-Aryan migration into India . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] In the modern world, it is a small but influential religious minority with as many as 4.2 million followers in India , [ 9 ] and successful growing immigrant communities in North America , Western Europe , the Far East , Australia and elsewhere. [ 10 ] doktrin Jain mengajarkan bahwa Jainisme selalu ada dan selalu akan ada, [1] [2] [3] Sejarawan tanggal dasar Jainisme terorganisir untuk suatu waktu antara 9 dan abad 6 SM . [4] [5] Beberapa berspekulasi bahwa agama mungkin telah berakar pada jaman dulu banyak, mencerminkan spiritualitas asli sebelum migrasi Indo-Arya ke India . [6] [7] [8] Dalam dunia modern, itu adalah agama minoritas berpengaruh tapi kecil dengan sebanyak 4,2 juta pengikut di India , [9] dan berhasil tumbuh komunitas imigran di Amerika Utara , Eropa Barat , di Timur Jauh , Australia dan tempat lain. [10]
Jains have successfully sustained this longstanding religion to the present day and have significantly influenced and contributed to ethical , political and economic spheres in India. Jain telah berhasil mempertahankan ini agama lama sampai hari ini dan mempunyai pengaruh signifikan terhadap dan memberikan kontribusi kepada etika , politik ekonomi lingkungan dan di India. Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of literacy for a religious community in India. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Jain libraries are the oldest in the country. [ 13 ] Tamil Jains and Kannada Jains who are native to their regions, residing in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka respectively since 1st century BCE, [ 14 ] are distinguishable from North Indian Jains in some of their routines and practices, but the core philosophies and belief systems are the same for all Jain communities. Jain memiliki tradisi kuno beasiswa dan memiliki tingkat tertinggi melek huruf bagi komunitas agama di India. [11] [12] Jain perpustakaan tertua di negara. [13] Jain Tamil dan Kannada Jain yang asli daerah mereka , yang berada di Tamil Nadu dan Karnataka masing sejak abad ke-1 SM, [14] yang dibedakan dari India Utara Jain di beberapa rutinitas mereka dan praktek, tetapi filosofi inti dan kepercayaan sistem adalah sama untuk semua masyarakat Jain.
[ edit ] Core beliefs [ sunting ] keyakinan Core
* Every living being has a soul . [ 14 ] * Setiap makhluk hidup memiliki jiwa . [14]
- Every soul is potentially divine, with innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (masked by its karmas ). Setiap jiwa secara potensial ilahi, dengan kualitas bawaan pengetahuan tak terbatas, persepsi, kekuasaan, dan kebahagiaan (masked oleh nya karma ).
- Regard every living being as you do yourself, harming no one and being kind to all living beings. Menganggap setiap makhluk hidup seperti yang Anda lakukan sendiri, tidak merugikan satu dan bersikap baik kepada semua makhluk hidup.
- Every soul is born as a heavenly being, human, sub-human or hellish being according to its own karma. Setiap jiwa lahir sebagai surgawi, manusia, sub-manusia atau neraka yang sesuai dengan karma sendiri.
- Every soul is the architect of its own life, here or hereafter. [ 15 ] Setiap jiwa adalah arsitek kehidupan sendiri, di sini atau akhirat. [15]
- When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes free and attains divine consciousness, experiencing infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss. [ 16 ] Ketika jiwa dibebaskan dari karma, menjadi bebas dan mencapai kesadaran ilahi, mengalami pengetahuan tak terbatas, persepsi, kekuasaan, dan kebahagiaan. [16]
- Right View, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct ( triple gems of Jainism ) provide the way to this realisation. [ 17 ] There is no supreme divine creator , owner, preserver, or destroyer. Pandangan Benar, Kanan Pengetahuan, dan Kanan Perilaku ( permata tripel Jainisme ) menyediakan cara untuk realisasi ini. [17] Tidak ada tertinggi pencipta ilahi , pemilik, pemelihara, atau perusak. The universe is self-regulated, and every soul has the potential to achieve divine consciousness (siddha) through its own efforts. Alam semesta diatur sendiri, dan setiap jiwa memiliki potensi untuk mencapai kesadaran ilahi (siddha) melalui usaha sendiri.
- Non-violence (to be in soul consciousness rather than body consciousness) is the foundation of right view, the condition of right knowledge and the kernel of right conduct. Non-kekerasan (berada di kesadaran jiwa bukan kesadaran tubuh) adalah dasar dari pandangan benar, kondisi pengetahuan yang benar dan kernel perilaku yang benar. It leads to a state of being unattached to worldly things and being nonjudgmental and non-violent; this includes compassion and forgiveness in thoughts, words and actions toward all living beings and respecting views of others (non-absolutism). Ini menyebabkan keadaan yang tidak terikat pada hal-hal duniawi dan yang menghakimi dan non-kekerasan, ini termasuk belas kasih dan pengampunan dalam pikiran, kata-kata dan tindakan terhadap semua makhluk hidup dan pemandangan menghormati orang lain (non-absolutisme).
- Jainism stresses the importance of controlling the senses including the mind, as they can drag one far away from true nature of the soul. Jainisme menekankan pentingnya mengendalikan indera termasuk pikiran, karena mereka dapat menarik satu jauh dari sifat sejati jiwa.
- Limit possessions and lead a life that is useful to yourself and others. Batas harta dan menjalani kehidupan yang berguna untuk diri sendiri dan orang lain. Owning an object by itself is not possessiveness; however, attachment to an object is possessiveness. [ 18 ] Non-possessiveness is the balancing of needs and desires while staying detached from our possessions. Memiliki sebuah benda dengan sendirinya tidak posesif, namun keterikatan terhadap suatu objek posesif. [18] Non-posesif adalah menyeimbangkan kebutuhan dan keinginan sementara tinggal terpisah dari milik kita.
- Enjoy the company of the holy and better-qualified, be merciful to afflicted souls, and tolerate the perversely inclined. [ 19 ] Nikmati perusahaan yang suci dan lebih baik-kualifikasi, kasihanilah jiwa-jiwa menderita, dan anehnya cenderung mentolerir. [19]
- Four things are difficult for a soul to attain: 1. Empat hal yang sulit bagi jiwa untuk mencapai: 1. human birth, 2. manusia lahir, 2. knowledge of the laws governing the souls, 3. pengetahuan tentang hukum yang mengatur jiwa, 3. absolute conviction in the philosophy of non-violence, and 4. mutlak keyakinan dalam filsafat non-kekerasan, dan 4. practicing this knowledge with conviction in everyday life activities. berlatih pengetahuan ini dengan keyakinan dalam kegiatan kehidupan sehari-hari.
- It is, therefore, important not to waste human life in evil ways. Oleh karena itu, penting untuk tidak menyia-nyiakan kehidupan manusia dengan cara yang jahat. Rather, strive to rise on the ladder of spiritual evolution. Sebaliknya, berusaha untuk bangkit pada tangga evolusi spiritual.
- The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of unenlightened thoughts, speech, and action. Tujuan dari Jainisme adalah pembebasan jiwa dari efek negatif dari pikiran kurang beradab, ucapan, dan tindakan. This goal is achieved through clearance of karmic obstructions by following the triple gems of Jainism . Tujuan ini dicapai melalui kliring penghalang karma dengan mengikuti permata tripel Jainisme .
- Navakar Mantra is the fundamental prayer in Jainism and can be recited at any time of the day. Navakar Mantra adalah doa mendasar dalam Jainisme dan dapat membacakan setiap saat sepanjang hari. Praying by reciting this mantra, the devotee bows in respect to liberated souls still in human form ( Arihantas ), fully liberated souls forever free from re-birth(Siddhas), spiritual leaders (Acharyas), teachers (Upadyayas) and all the monks and nuns(sarva sadhus [monks], sadhvis [nuns] [ 20 ] ). Berdoa dengan mengucapkan mantra ini, busur pemuja dalam hal jiwa dibebaskan masih dalam bentuk manusia ( Arihantas ), sepenuhnya jiwa dibebaskan selamanya bebas dari kelahiran kembali (Siddha), pemimpin spiritual (Acharyas), guru (Upadyayas) dan semua para biksu dan biarawati (sarva Sadhus [bhikkhu], sadhvis [biarawati] [20] ). By saluting them saying "namo namaha", Jains receive inspiration from them to follow their path to achieve true bliss and total freedom from the karmas binding their souls. Dengan menghormat mereka mengatakan "namo namaha", Jain menerima ilham dari mereka untuk mengikuti jalan mereka untuk mencapai kebahagiaan sejati dan kebebasan total dari karma mengikat jiwa mereka. In this main prayer, Jains do not ask for any favours or material benefits. Dalam doa utama, Jain tidak meminta bantuan apapun atau keuntungan material. This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep respect toward beings that are more spiritually advanced. mantra ini berfungsi sebagai isyarat sederhana respek yang dalam terhadap makhluk yang lebih maju secara spiritual. The mantra also reminds followers of the ultimate goal of reaching nirvana or moksha . [ 21 ] mantra ini juga mengingatkan pengikut tujuan akhir mencapai nirwana atau moksha . [21]
- Jains worship the icons of Jinas, Arihants, and Tirthankars, who have conquered their inner passions and attained divine consciousness, and study the scriptures of these liberated beings. Jain ibadah ikon Jinas, Arihants, dan Tirthankars, yang telah menaklukkan gairah batin mereka dan mencapai kesadaran ilahi, dan mempelajari tulisan suci makhluk ini dibebaskan.
- Jainism acknowledges the existence of powerful heavenly souls (Yaksha and Yakshini) that look after the well-beings of Tirthankarars . Jainisme mengakui adanya jiwa surgawi yang kuat (Yaksha dan Yakshini) yang memelihara makhluk-baik dari Tirthankarars . Usually, they are found in pair around the icons of Jinas as male (yaksha) and female (yakshini) guardian deities. Biasanya, mereka ditemukan dalam pasangan sekitar ikon Jinas sebagai laki-laki (yaksha) dan perempuan (yakshini) para penjaga. Even though they have supernatural powers, these deities are also souls wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like most other souls. Meskipun mereka memiliki kekuatan gaib, dewa ini juga jiwa mengembara melalui siklus kelahiran dan kematian seperti kebanyakan jiwa. Over time, people started worshiping these deities as well. [ 22 ] Seiring waktu, orang-orang mulai menyembah dewa ini juga. [22]
[ edit ] Principles and other beliefs [ sunting ] Prinsip dan kepercayaan lainnya
Five Mahavratas of Jain ascetics Lima Mahavratas dari pertapa Jain Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of one's own personal wisdom and reliance on self-control (by means of व्रत, vrata = vow). [ 23 ] Right perception, Right knowledge, and Right conduct ( triple gems of Jainism ) provide the path for attaining liberation (moksha) from the cycles of birth and death (samsara). Jainisme mendorong perkembangan spiritual melalui budidaya pribadi kebijaksanaan sendiri dan ketergantungan pada pengendalian diri (dengan cara व्रत, vrata = sumpah). [23] Hak persepsi, Hak pengetahuan, dan Kanan melakukan ( permata tripel Jainisme ) memberikan jalan bagi mencapai pembebasan (moksha) dari siklus kelahiran dan kematian (samsara). When the soul sheds its karmic bonds completely, it attains divine consciousness. Ketika jiwa gudang obligasi karma secara lengkap, ia mencapai kesadaran ilahi. The goal of Jainism is to realize the soul's true nature. Tujuan dari Jainisme adalah untuk menyadari sifat sejati jiwa. Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. Jainisme mengatur jalur non-kekerasan untuk kemajuan jiwa ini tujuan akhir. Those who have attained moksha are called siddha (liberated souls), and those attached to the world through their karma are called samsarin (mundane souls). Mereka yang telah mencapai moksha disebut siddha (jiwa dibebaskan), dan mereka yang melekat pada dunia melalui karma mereka disebut samsarin (jiwa duniawi). Every soul has to follow the path, as explained by the jinas (victors) and revived by Tirthankaras, to attain complete liberation or Nirvana. Setiap jiwa harus mengikuti jalan, seperti yang dijelaskan oleh jinas (pemenang) dan dihidupkan kembali oleh Tirthankaras, untuk mencapai pembebasan lengkap atau Nirvana.
Jains do not believe in the concept of a God-head responsible for the manifestation of the Creation and Maintenance of Creation. Jain tidak percaya pada konsep kepala-Allah bertanggung jawab atas manifestasi dari Penciptaan dan Pemeliharaan Penciptaan. The universe however keeps changing due to interactions between matter and energy in the course of time and governed by laws of nature with no necessity of a co-ordinator/regulator. Alam semesta namun terus berubah karena interaksi antara materi dan energi dalam perjalanan waktu dan diatur oleh hukum-hukum alam tanpa kebutuhan sebuah co-ordinator/regulator. It also believes that there is life in other parts of universe other than earth. Ia juga berpendapat bahwa ada kehidupan di bagian lain alam semesta selain bumi. Jains have extensive knowledge and classifications of various living organisms including micro-organisms that reside in mud, air and water. Jain memiliki pengetahuan luas dan mengelompokkan berbagai organisme hidup termasuk mikro-organisme yang berada di lumpur, udara dan air. It teaches respect for all forms of life and encourages minimising harm to other living beings by practicing five major ethical principles. Ini mengajarkan hormat untuk semua bentuk kehidupan dan mendorong meminimalkan membahayakan makhluk hidup lainnya dengan berlatih lima prinsip etika utama.
Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. Jain percaya bahwa untuk mencapai pencerahan dan akhirnya pembebasan, seseorang harus mempraktekkan prinsip-prinsip etika berikut (utama sumpah) dalam pemikiran, ucapan dan tindakan. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. Sejauh mana prinsip-prinsip ini dipraktekkan berbeda untuk kepala keluarga dan biarawan. They are: Mereka adalah:
- Non-violence ( Ahimsa ) – to cause no harm to living beings. Non-kekerasan ( Ahimsa ) - untuk menyebabkan kerugian tidak untuk makhluk hidup. This is the fundamental vow from which all other vows stem. Ini adalah janji mendasar dari mana semua lainnya sumpah batang. It involves minimizing intentional and unintentional harm to any other living creature. Ini melibatkan meminimalkan kerugian disengaja dan tidak disengaja ke makhluk hidup lainnya. "Non-violence" is sometimes interpreted as not killing, but the concept goes far beyond that. "Non-kekerasan" kadang-kadang diartikan sebagai tidak membunuh, namun konsep jauh melampaui itu. It includes not harming or insulting other living beings, either directly, or indirectly through others. Ini termasuk tidak merugikan atau menghina makhluk hidup lainnya, baik secara langsung atau tidak langsung melalui orang lain. There can be even no room for thought to injure others, and no speech that influences others to inflict harm. [ 24 ] It also includes respecting the views of others (non-absolutism and acceptance of multiple views). Tidak bisa bahkan tidak ada ruang untuk berpikir untuk melukai orang lain, dan tidak ada pidato yang mempengaruhi orang lain untuk menimbulkan bahaya. [24] Ini juga mencakup menghormati pandangan orang lain (non-absolutisme dan penerimaan pandangan ganda).
- Truthfulness ( Satya ) – to always speak the truth in a harmless manner. Sejati ( Satya ) - untuk selalu berbicara kebenaran dengan cara yang tidak berbahaya. A person who speaks the truth becomes trustworthy like a mother, venerable like a preceptor and dear to everyone like a kinsman. Seseorang yang berbicara kebenaran menjadi dapat dipercaya seperti ibu, terhormat seperti pembimbing dan sayang kepada semua orang seperti saudara yang. Given that non-violence has priority, all other principles yield to it, whenever there is a conflict. Mengingat bahwa non-kekerasan memiliki prioritas, semua prinsip-prinsip lain hasil untuk itu, setiap kali ada konflik. For example, if speaking truth will lead to violence, it is perfectly ethical to be silent. Sebagai contoh, jika kebenaran berbicara akan mengakibatkan kekerasan, sangatlah etis untuk diam.
- Non-stealing ( Asteya ) – to not take anything that is not willingly given. Non-mencuri ( Asetya ) - untuk tidak mengambil sesuatu yang tidak rela diberikan. Asteya, "non-stealing", is the strict adherence to one's own possessions, without desire to take another's. Asetya, "non-mencuri", adalah ketaatan pada milik sendiri, tanpa keinginan untuk mengambil orang lain. One should remain satisfied by whatever is earned through honest labour. Satu harus tetap puas dengan apa pun yang diperoleh melalui kerja jujur. Any attempt to squeeze material wealth from others and/or exploit the weak is considered theft. Setiap usaha untuk memeras kekayaan materi dari orang lain dan / atau mengeksploitasi yang lemah dianggap pencurian. Some of the guidelines for this principle are: Beberapa pedoman prinsip ini adalah:
(1) Always give people fair value for labor or product. (1) Selalu memberi nilai wajar orang tenaga kerja atau produk.
(2) Never take things that are not offered. (2) Jangan pernah mengambil hal-hal yang tidak ditawarkan.
(3) Never take things that are placed, dropped or forgotten by others. (3) Jangan pernah mengambil barang-barang yang ditempatkan, terjatuh atau dilupakan oleh orang lain.
(4) Never purchase cheaper things if the price is the result of improper method (eg, pyramid scheme, illegal business, stolen goods, etc.) (4) Jangan pernah membeli barang-barang murah jika harga merupakan hasil dari metode yang tidak tepat (misalnya, skema piramida, bisnis ilegal, barang curian, dll)
- Celibacy ( Brahmacharya ) – to control the senses including mind from indulgence. Selibat ( Brahmacharya ) - untuk mengontrol indera termasuk pikiran dari kesenangan. The basic intent of this vow is to conquer passion and to prevent the waste of energy. Tujuan dasar dari sumpah ini adalah untuk menaklukkan semangat dan untuk mencegah pemborosan energi. In this vow, the house holder must not have a sensual relationship with anybody other than one's own spouse. Dalam sumpah ini, pemegang rumah harus tidak memiliki hubungan sensual dengan orang lain selain pasangan sendiri. Jain monks and nuns should practice complete abstinence from sex. [ 25 ] Jain biarawan dan biarawati harus berlatih berpantang penuh dari seks. [25]
- Non-possession or Non-materialism ( Aparigraha ) – to detach from people, places, and material things. Non-kepemilikan atau Non-materialisme ( Aparigraha ) - untuk melepaskan diri dari orang, tempat, dan hal-hal material. Ownership of an object itself is not possessiveness; however, attachment to an object is possessiveness. Kepemilikan benda itu sendiri tidak posesif, namun keterikatan terhadap objek adalah posesif. For householders, non-possession is owning without attachment, because the notion of possession is illusory. Untuk rumah tangga, non-kepemilikan adalah memiliki tanpa lampiran, karena gagasan kepemilikan adalah ilusi. The reality of life is that change is constant; thus, objects owned by someone today will be property of someone else in future. Realitas kehidupan adalah perubahan yang konstan, dengan demikian, benda yang dimiliki oleh seseorang hari ini akan menjadi milik orang lain di masa depan. The householder is encouraged to discharge his or her duties to related people and objects as a trustee, without excessive attachment or aversion. rumah tangga didorong untuk melepaskan nya tugas kepada orang-orang terkait dan benda-benda sebagai wali amanat, tanpa lampiran berlebihan atau keengganan. For monks and nuns, non-possession is complete renunciation of property and relations including home and family. [ 26 ] Untuk biarawan dan biarawati, non-kepemilikan adalah penolakan lengkap properti dan hubungan termasuk rumah dan keluarga. [26]
Jains hold that our universe and its laws of nature are eternal, without beginning or end. Jain percaya bahwa alam semesta kita dan hukum-hukum alam yang abadi, tanpa awal atau akhir. However, it constantly undergoes cyclical changes. Namun, terus-menerus mengalami perubahan siklus. Our universe is occupied by both living beings ("Jīva") and non-living objects ("Ajīva"). alam semesta kami ditempati oleh makhluk hidup ("jiva") dan objek non-hidup ("Ajīva"). The samsarin (worldly or mundane) soul incarnates in various life forms during its journey over time. The samsarin (duniawi atau biasa) jiwa menjelma dalam berbagai bentuk kehidupan selama perjalanan dari waktu ke waktu. Human, sub-human (animal, insect, plant, etc.), super-human (heavenly being), and hell-being are the four macro forms of the samsari souls. Manusia, sub-manusia (hewan, serangga, tanaman, dll), super-manusia (surgawi), dan neraka-yang adalah empat bentuk makro dari jiwa samsari. A living being's thoughts, expressions and actions executed with intents of attachments and aversions, give rise to accumulation of karma. Suatu makhluk hidup yang pikiran, ekspresi dan tindakan dilaksanakan dengan maksud lampiran dan penolakan, menimbulkan akumulasi karma. These influxes of karma in turn contribute to determine our future circumstances that are both rewarding and punishing. Influxes ini karma pada gilirannya memberikan kontribusi untuk menentukan keadaan masa depan kita yang baik bermanfaat dan menghukum. Jain scholars have explained in depth on methods and techniques that will clear the past karmas accumulated as well as stopping the inflow of fresh karmas. Jain ulama telah menjelaskan secara mendalam tentang metode dan teknik yang akan menghapus akumulasi karma masa lalu serta menghentikan aliran karmas segar.
A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviours. [ 27 ] One's unconquered mind tainted with anger, pride (ego), deceit and greed joined with uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Karakteristik utama dari kepercayaan Jain adalah penekanan pada konsekuensi dari fisik tetapi juga mental perilaku hanya tidak. [27] One pikiran Tak Terkalahkan tercemar dengan kemarahan, kebanggaan (ego), penipuan dan keserakahan bergabung dengan indra yang tidak terkendali adalah musuh yang kuat dari manusia . Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Kemarahan merusak hubungan baik, kebanggaan menghancurkan kerendahan hati, penipuan menghancurkan perdamaian dan keserakahan menghancurkan semuanya. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride (ego) by humility, deceit by straight-forwardness and greed by contentment. [ 28 ] Jainisme merekomendasikan menaklukkan kemarahan oleh pengampunan, kebanggaan (ego) oleh kerendahan hati, penipuan dengan lurus-kesiapan dan keserakahan dengan kepuasan. [28]
The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas that limit the capabilities of the soul. Prinsip non-kekerasan untuk meminimalkan karmas yang membatasi kemampuan jiwa. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become Siddha (Param-atma – "highest soul"). Jainisme dilihat setiap jiwa sebagai layak dihormati karena memiliki potensi untuk menjadi Siddha (Param-atma - "jiwa tertinggi"). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Karena semua makhluk hidup memiliki jiwa, hati-hati dan kesadaran sangat penting dalam tindakan seseorang. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. Jainisme menekankan kesetaraan hidup semua, tidak menyakiti advokasi terhadap semua, apakah makhluk yang besar atau kecil. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Kebijakan ini bahkan meluas ke organisme mikroskopis. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders. Jainisme mengakui bahwa setiap orang memiliki kemampuan yang berbeda dan kapasitas untuk berlatih dan karena itu menerima berbagai tingkat kepatuhan untuk pertapa dan kepala keluarga. The "great vows" (mahavrata) are prescribed for monks and nuns. The "besar bersumpah" (mahavrata) diresepkan untuk biarawan dan biarawati. "Limited vows" (anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. "Terbatas bersumpah" (anuvrata) diresepkan untuk rumah tangga. In other words, the house-holders are encouraged to practice the five cardinal principles of non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possessiveness with their current practical limitations while the monks and nuns have to observe them very strictly. Dengan kata lain, rumah-pemegang didorong untuk mempraktekkan lima prinsip kardinal non-kekerasan, kebenaran, tidak mencuri, selibat dan non-posesif dengan keterbatasan mereka saat ini praktis sementara biarawan dan biarawati harus mengamati mereka sangat ketat. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress. Dengan latihan yang konsisten, maka akan mungkin untuk mengatasi keterbatasan secara bertahap, mempercepat kemajuan spiritual.
[ edit ] Emphasis on non-violence in thought and practice [ sunting ] Penekanan pada non-kekerasan dalam pemikiran dan praktek
Jains hold the above five major vows at the center of their lives. Jain tahan lima di atas sumpah utama di tengah-tengah kehidupan mereka. These vows cannot be fully implemented without the acceptance of a philosophy of non-absolutism. Anekantavada (multiple points of view), is a foundation of Jain philosophy. Sumpah ini tidak dapat sepenuhnya dilaksanakan tanpa penerimaan dari filosofi non-absolutisme. Anekantavada (banyak sudut pandang), adalah dasar dari filsafat Jain. This philosophy allows the Jains to accept the truth in other philosophies from their perspective and thus inculcating a tolerance for other viewpoints. Filosofi ini memungkinkan Jain untuk menerima kebenaran dalam filsafat lain dari perspektif mereka dan dengan demikian menanamkan toleransi untuk sudut pandang lain. Jain scholars have devised methods to view both physical objects and abstract ideas from different perspectives systematically. Jain ulama telah merancang metode untuk melihat kedua benda-benda fisik dan gagasan abstrak dari perspektif yang berbeda secara sistematis. This is the application of non-violence in the sphere of thought. Ini adalah aplikasi non-kekerasan dalam bidang pemikiran. It is a Jain philosophical standpoint just as there is the Advaitic standpoint of Sankara and the standpoint of the Middle Path of the Buddhists. [ 29 ] This search to view things from different angles, leads to understanding and toleration of different and even conflicting views. Ini adalah sudut pandang filosofis Jain seperti ada sudut pandang Advaitic dari Sankara dan sudut pandang dari Jalan Tengah dari Buddha. [29] Hal ini pencarian untuk melihat hal dari sudut yang berbeda, menyebabkan pemahaman dan toleransi dan bahkan bertentangan tampilan yang berbeda. When this happens prejudices subside and a tendency to accommodate increases. Ketika ini terjadi mereda prasangka dan kecenderungan untuk mengakomodasi meningkat. The theory of Anekanta is therefore a unique experiment of non-violence at the root. [ 14 ] Teori Anekanta Oleh karena itu percobaan unik non-kekerasan pada akar. [14]
A derivation of this principle is the doctrine of Syadvada that highlights every model relative to its view point. Sebuah derivasi dari prinsip ini adalah doktrin Syadvada yang menyoroti setiap model relatif terhadap titik pandangannya. It is a matter of our daily experience that the same object that gives pleasure to us under certain circumstances becomes boring under different situations. Ini adalah masalah pengalaman sehari-hari kita bahwa objek yang sama yang memberikan kesenangan kepada kami dalam keadaan tertentu menjadi membosankan di bawah situasi yang berbeda. Nonetheless, relative truth is useful, as it is a stepping-stone to the ultimate realization and understanding of reality. Meskipun demikian, kebenaran relatif berguna, karena ini adalah batu loncatan untuk realisasi akhir dan pemahaman tentang realitas. The theory of Syadvada is based on the premise that every proposition is only relatively true. Teori Syadvada didasarkan pada premis bahwa setiap proposisi hanya relatif benar. It all depends on the particular aspect from which we approach that proposition. Itu semua tergantung pada aspek tertentu dari mana kita mendekati proposisi itu. Jains, therefore, developed logic that encompasses sevenfold predication so as to assist in the construction of proper judgment about any proposition. Jain, oleh karena itu, logika yang dikembangkan yang meliputi tujuh predikasi sehingga dapat membantu dalam pembangunan penilaian yang tepat tentang proposisi apa pun.
Syadvada provides Jains with a systematic methodology to explore the real nature of reality and consider the problem in a non-violent way from different perspectives. Syadvada menyediakan Jain dengan metodologi sistematis untuk mengeksplorasi sifat sesungguhnya dari realitas dan menganggap masalah kekerasan dalam cara yang tidak dari perspektif yang berbeda. This process ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, and thus it is known as theory of conditioned predication. Proses ini memastikan bahwa setiap pernyataan diungkapkan dari tujuh sudut pandang bersyarat dan relatif berbeda atau proposisi, dan karenanya dikenal sebagai teori predikasi AC. These seven propositions are described as follows: Ketujuh proposisi digambarkan sebagai berikut:
- 1.Syād-asti — "in some ways it is" 1.Syād-asti - "dalam beberapa hal itu adalah"
- 2.Syād-nāsti — "in some ways it is not" 2.Syād-nāsti - "dalam beberapa hal itu tidak"
- 3.Syād-asti-nāsti — "in some ways it is and it is not" 3.Syād-asti-nāsti - "dalam beberapa hal itu dan tidak"
- 4.Syād-asti-avaktavya — "in some ways it is and it is indescribable" 4.Syād-asti-avaktavya - "dalam beberapa hal itu dan itu tak terlukiskan"
- 5.Syād-nāsti-avaktavya — "in some ways it is not and it is indescribable" 5.Syād-nāsti-avaktavya - "dalam beberapa hal itu tidak dan tidak dapat digambarkan"
- 6.Syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavya — "in some ways it is, it is not and it is indescribable" 6.Syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavya - "dalam beberapa hal itu, tidak dan tidak dapat digambarkan"
- 7.Syād-avaktavya — "in some ways it is indescribable" 7.Syād-avaktavya - "dalam beberapa hal itu tak terlukiskan"
For example, a tree could be stationary with respect to an observer on earth; however it will be viewed as moving along with planet Earth for an observer in space. Sebagai contoh, pohon bisa diam terhadap pengamat di bumi, namun itu akan dipandang sebagai bergerak bersama dengan planet bumi bagi pengamat di ruang angkasa.
Jains are usually very welcoming and friendly toward other faiths and often help with interfaith functions. Jain biasanya sangat ramah dan bersahabat terhadap agama lain dan sering membantu dengan fungsi antaragama. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jains. candi non-Jain Beberapa di India dikelola oleh Jain. A palpable presence in Indian culture , Jains have contributed to Indian philosophy , art , architecture , science , and to Mohandas Gandhi 's politics , which led to the mainly non-violent movement for Indian independence . [ 30 ] Though Mohandas Gandhi stated clearly in his Autobiography that his mother was a Vaishnava, Jain monks visited his home regularly. Kehadiran gamblang dalam budaya India , Jain telah berkontribusi untuk filsafat India , seni , arsitektur , ilmu pengetahuan , dan untuk Mohandas Gandhi s ' politik , yang menyebabkan gerakan non-kekerasan terutama untuk kemerdekaan India . [30] Meskipun Mohandas Gandhi dinyatakan dengan jelas dalam nya Otobiografi bahwa ibunya adalah seorang Waisnawa, biarawan Jain mengunjungi rumahnya secara teratur. He spent considerable time under the tutelage of Jain monks, learning the philosophies of non-violence and doing good always. Dia menghabiskan banyak waktu di bawah pengawasan bhikkhu Jain, belajar filsafat non-kekerasan dan berbuat baik selalu.
[ edit ] Karma theory [ sunting ] Teori Karma
Karma in Jainism conveys a totally different meaning than commonly understood in the Hindu philosophy and western civilization. [ 31 ] It is not the so called inaccessible force that controls the fate of living beings in inexplicable ways. Karma dalam Jainisme menyampaikan makna yang sama sekali berbeda dari umumnya dipahami dalam Hindu filsafat dan peradaban barat. [31] Hal ini tidak dapat diakses gaya disebut demikian yang mengontrol nasib makhluk hidup dengan cara yang tak dapat dijelaskan. It does not simply mean "deed", "work", nor mystical force ( adrsta ), but a complex of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which interacts with the soul in intensity and quantity proportional to the thoughts, speech and physical actions carried out with attachments and aversions, causing further bondages. Ini tidak hanya berarti "perbuatan", "bekerja", atau kekuatan mistik ( adrsta ), tetapi sebuah kompleks hal yang sangat halus, tak terlihat ke indra, yang berinteraksi dengan jiwa dalam intensitas dan kuantitas sebanding dengan pikiran, ucapan dan fisik tindakan yang dilakukan dengan lampiran dan penolakan, menyebabkan bondages lebih lanjut. Karma in Jainism is something material ( karmapaudgalam ), which produces certain conditions, like a medical pill has many effects. [ 32 ] The effects of karma in Jainism is therefore a system of natural laws rather than moral laws. Karma dalam Jainisme adalah sesuatu bahan (karmapaudgalam), yang menghasilkan kondisi tertentu, seperti pil medis memiliki banyak efek. [32] Pengaruh karma dalam Jainisme Oleh karena itu sebuah sistem hukum alam, bukan hukum-hukum moral. When one holds an apple in one's hand and then lets go of the apple, the apple will fall due to gravitational force. Ketika satu memegang sebuah apel di tangan seseorang dan kemudian melepaskan apel, apel itu akan jatuh karena gaya gravitasi. In this example, there is no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of a physical action. [ 33 ] The concept of Karma in Jainism is basically a reaction due to the attachment or aversion with which an activity (both positive and negative) is executed in thought, verbal and physical sense. Dalam contoh ini, tidak ada penghakiman moral yang terlibat, karena ini merupakan konsekuensi mekanik dari tindakan fisik. [33] Konsep Karma dalam Jainisme pada dasarnya reaksi karena lampiran atau keengganan dengan yang suatu kegiatan (baik positif maupun negatif ) dilaksanakan dalam pikiran, verbal dan rasa fisik. Extending on the example outlined, the same apple dropped within a zero gravity environment such as a spacecraft circling around earth, will float in its place. Memperluas contoh yang diuraikan, apel sama jatuh pada lingkungan gravitasi nol seperti pesawat ruang angkasa berputar mengelilingi bumi, akan mengapung di tempatnya. Similarly, when one acts without attachment and aversion there will be no further karmic bonding to the soul. Demikian pula, ketika salah satu tindakan tanpa keterikatan dan kebencian tidak akan ada ikatan karma lebih lanjut untuk jiwa.
Karmas are grouped as Destructive Karmas , that obstruct the true nature of the soul and Non-Destructive Karmas that only affect the body in which the soul resides. Karmas dikelompokkan sebagai Merusak karmas, yang menghambat hakikat jiwa dan Non-Merusak karmas yang hanya mempengaruhi tubuh dimana jiwa berada. As long as there are Destructive Karmas, the soul is caged in a body and will have to experience pain and suffering in many different forms. Selama ada yang Merusak karmas, jiwa terkurung dalam tubuh dan akan harus mengalami rasa sakit dan penderitaan dalam berbagai bentuk. Jainism has extensive sub-classifications and detailed explanations of each of these major categories. Jainisme memiliki luas sub-klasifikasi dan penjelasan rinci dari masing-masing kategori utama. Jain liturgy and scriptures explains ways to stop the influx as well as get rid of the accumulated karmas. liturgi Jain dan kitab suci menjelaskan cara untuk menghentikan masuknya serta menyingkirkan karma akumulasi.
[ edit ] Shedding of Past Karmas (Nirjara) [ sunting ] penumpahan lalu karmas (Nirjara)
Main article: Nirjara Artikel utama: Nirjara Jainism prescribes mainly two methods for shedding karmas ( Nirjara ), accumulated by the soul. Jainisme mengatur terutama dua metode untuk menumpahkan karmas ( Nirjara ), akumulasi oleh jiwa.
- Passive Method – By allowing past karmas to ripen in due course of time and experiencing the results, both good and bad with equanimity. Metode pasif - Dengan membiarkan karma masa lalu untuk mematangkan pada waktunya waktu dan mengalami hasil, yang baik dan buruk dengan tenang. If the fruits of the past karmas are received with attachment or with agitation then the soul earns fresh karmic bondages. Jika buah dari karma masa lalu diterima dengan lampiran atau dengan agitasi maka jiwa memperoleh bondages karma segar. It is also not possible for the soul to know before-hand when and which karma will start to produce results. Hal ini juga tidak mungkin bagi jiwa untuk mengetahui sebelum-tangan kapan dan dimana karma akan mulai untuk memproduksi hasil. Therefore, a person should practice equanimity under all circumstances. Oleh karena itu, seseorang harus berlatih keseimbangan batin dalam semua keadaan.
- Active Method – By practicing internal and external austerities (penances or tapas) so as to accelerate the ripening process as well as reducing the effects produced. Metode Aktif - Dengan berlatih dan eksternal pertapaan internal (penitensi atau tapas) sehingga dapat mempercepat proses pematangan serta mengurangi efek yang dihasilkan. This is the recommended approach as it prepares and conditions the soul and reminds one to be vigilant. Ini adalah pendekatan yang dianjurkan karena mempersiapkan dan kondisi jiwa dan mengingatkan satu untuk waspada.
The internal austerities are Para pertapaan internal
- Atonement of sinful acts Penebusan tindakan berdosa
- Practice politeness and humility - in spite of having comparatively more wealth, wisdom, social status, power, etc. Praktek kesopanan dan kerendahan hati - meskipun memiliki kekayaan yang relatif lebih banyak, kebijaksanaan, status sosial, kekuasaan, dll
- Service to others, especially monks, nuns, elders and the weaker souls without any expectations in return Pelayanan kepada orang lain, terutama biarawan, biarawati, orang tua dan jiwa-jiwa lemah tanpa harapan kembali
- Scriptural study, questioning and expanding the spiritual knowledge studi Alkitab, mempertanyakan dan memperluas pengetahuan spiritual
- Abandonment of passions – especially anger, ego, deceit and greed Ditinggalkannya nafsu - terutama kemarahan, ego, kebohongan dan keserakahan
- Meditation Meditasi
The external austerities are meant to discipline the sensual cravings. Para pertapaan eksternal dimaksudkan untuk disiplin ngidam sensual. They are Mereka
- Fasting Puasa
- Eating less than one's normal diet Makan kurang dari satu diet yang normal
- Abstention from tasty and stimulating food Abstain dari makanan lezat dan merangsang
- Practising humility and thankfulness – by seeking help without egoistic tendencies Mempraktekkan kerendahan hati dan syukur - dengan mencari bantuan tanpa kecenderungan egois
- Practising solitude and introspection Mempraktekkan kesendirian dan introspeksi
- Mastering demands of the body Menguasai tuntutan tubuh
[ edit ] Meditation [ sunting ] Meditasi
Main article: Jain meditation Artikel utama: meditasi Jain Jain scriptures offer extensive guidance on meditation techniques to achieve full knowledge and awareness. suci Jain memberikan panduan lengkap mengenai teknik meditasi untuk mencapai pengetahuan penuh dan kesadaran. It offers tremendous physical and mental benefits. Jain meditation techniques are designed to assist the practitioner to remain apart from clinging and hatred thereby liberating from karmic bondages through Right perception, Right knowledge and Right conduct. [ 34 ] Meditation in Jainism aims at taking the soul to status of complete freedom from bondages. [ 35 ] Menawarkan manfaat fisik dan mental yang luar biasa.. Meditasi Jain teknik dirancang untuk membantu praktisi untuk tetap terpisah dari kemelekatan dan kebencian sehingga membebaskan karma dari bondages Kanan melalui persepsi, pengetahuan dan Hak Hak melakukan [34] Meditasi di Jainisme bertujuan mengambil jiwa untuk status kebebasan penuh dari bondages. [35]
Meditation assists greatly in managing and balancing one's passion. Meditasi sangat membantu dalam mengelola dan menyeimbangkan gairah seseorang. Great emphasis is placed on the control of internal thoughts, as they influence the behaviour, actions and goals. Great penekanan ditempatkan pada mengendalikan pikiran internal, karena mereka mempengaruhi perilaku, tindakan dan tujuan. It prescribes twelve mindful reflections or contemplations to help in this process. Ini mengatur dua belas refleksi sadar atau kontemplasi untuk membantu dalam proses ini. They are called Bhavanas or Anuprekshas that assist one to remain on the right course of life, and not stray away. Mereka disebut Bhavanas atau Anuprekshas yang membantu seseorang untuk tetap berada pada jalan yang benar hidup, dan tidak menyimpang. Please note that Jains apply the sevenfold predicate methodology of Syadvada , which includes the consideration of different views on each of these topics including the opposite view. Harap dicatat bahwa Jain menerapkan metodologi predikat tujuh dari Syadvada , yang mencakup pertimbangan pandangan yang berbeda pada masing-masing topik termasuk pandangan yang berbeda. They are: Mereka adalah:
- Impermanence - Everything in this world is subject to change and transformation. Kefanaan - Segala sesuatu di dunia ini dapat berubah dan transformasi. Spiritual values are therefore worth striving for as they alone offer the soul, its ultimate freedom and stability. nilai-nilai rohani itu layak diperjuangkan karena mereka hanya menawarkan jiwa, kebebasan akhir dan stabilitas.
- Protection - Under this reflection, one thinks about how helpless one is against old age, disease and death. Perlindungan - Dalam refleksi ini, orang berpikir tentang bagaimana seseorang tidak berdaya melawan tua, penyakit usia dan kematian. The soul is its own saviour and to achieve total freedom one needs to follow the non-violent path of Arithants, Siddhas and practicing saints. Jiwa adalah penyelamat sendiri dan untuk mencapai kebebasan total kita perlu mengikuti jalan non-kekerasan dari Arithants, Siddha dan orang-orang kudus berlatih. Leaders with their powerful armies, scientists with their latest advances in technology cannot provide the protection from the eventual decay and death. Pemimpin dengan tentara yang kuat mereka, para ilmuwan dengan kemajuan teknologi terbaru mereka tidak dapat menyediakan perlindungan dari pembusukan akhirnya dan kematian. The refuge to things other than the non-violent path are due to delusion, is unfortunate, and must be avoided. Tempat perlindungan untuk hal-hal lain selain jalan non-kekerasan adalah karena khayalan, sangat disayangkan, dan harus dihindari.
- Worldly Existence - The soul transmigrates from one life form to another and is full of pain and miseries. Adanya duniawi - Jiwa transmigran dari satu bentuk kehidupan yang lain dan penuh rasa sakit dan penderitaan. There are no permanent relationships as the soul moves from one body form to another and can only exit this illusion through liberation from the cycles of birth, growth, decay and death. Tidak ada hubungan yang permanen sebagai jiwa bergerak dari satu bentuk tubuh lain dan hanya dapat keluar dari ilusi ini melalui pembebasan dari siklus kelahiran, pertumbuhan pembusukan, dan kematian.
- Solitude of the Soul - The soul has to bear the consequences of the positive and negative karmas alone. Kesendirian Jiwa - Jiwa harus menanggung konsekuensi dari karma positif dan negatif saja. Such thoughts will stimulate to get rid of the existing karmas by one's own efforts and lead a peaceful life of co-existence. pikiran tersebut akan merangsang untuk menyingkirkan karma yang ada dengan usaha sendiri dan menjalani hidup damai co-eksistensi.
- Separateness of Soul - Under this reflection, one thinks that the soul is separate from other objects or living beings. Keterpisahan dari Soul - Dalam refleksi ini, orang berpikir bahwa jiwa terpisah dari benda-benda lain atau makhluk hidup. One should think even the current body is not owned by the soul. Orang harus berpikir bahkan tubuh saat ini tidak dimiliki oleh jiwa. It is however an important vehicle to lead a useful life to progress the soul further. Namun itu sebuah kendaraan penting untuk menjalani hidup yang berguna untuk kemajuan jiwa lebih lanjut. The soul therefore should not develop attachment or aversion to any worldly objects. Jiwa karena itu tidak harus mengembangkan lampiran atau keengganan untuk benda duniawi.
- Impureness of the body - Under this section of thought, one is urged to think about constituent elements of one's body so as to compare and contrast it with the purity of soul. Impureness tubuh - bagian ini pemikiran, seseorang didorong untuk memikirkan tentang unsur-unsur pokok dari tubuh seseorang sehingga dapat membandingkan dan kontras dengan kemurnian jiwa. This kind of concentration assists in detaching emotionally from one's body. Semacam ini membantu dalam memisahkan konsentrasi emosional dari tubuh seseorang.
- Influx of Karma - Every time the soul enjoys or suffers through the five senses (touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing) with attachment, aversion or ignorance, it attracts new karma. Masuknya Karma - Setiap kali jiwa menikmati atau menderita melalui panca indera (sentuhan, rasa, bau, penglihatan dan pendengaran) dengan lampiran, kebencian atau kebodohan, ia menarik karma baru. Practising this reflection, reminds the soul to be more careful. Mempraktekkan refleksi ini, mengingatkan jiwa untuk lebih berhati-hati.
- Stoppage of influx of Karma - In this reflection, one thinks about stopping evil thoughts and cultivates development of right knowledge that assists to control the wandering mind. Penghentian masuknya Karma - Dalam refleksi ini, orang berpikir tentang menghentikan pikiran jahat dan memelihara pengembangan pengetahuan yang benar yang membantu untuk mengendalikan pikiran mengembara.
- Karma shedding - Under this reflection, one thinks about practising external and internal austerities to shed the previously accumulated karma. Karma penumpahan - Dalam refleksi ini, orang berpikir tentang berlatih kesucian eksternal dan internal untuk melepaskan akumulasi karma sebelumnya. This assists in development of right discipline as a matter of routine habit. Ini membantu dalam pengembangan disiplin hak sebagai masalah kebiasaan rutin.
- Universe - Universe consists of Souls, Matter, Medium of motion, Medium of Rest, Space and Time. Universe - Universe terdiri of Souls, Matter, Menengah gerak, Sedang dari Istirahat, Ruang dan Waktu. To think of the nature and structure of universe helps one understand the complex dynamics of eternal modifications and work towards the goal of freeing the soul from the seemingly never ending changes. Untuk berpikir tentang sifat dan struktur alam semesta membantu seseorang memahami dinamika kompleks modifikasi kekal dan bekerja menuju tujuan membebaskan jiwa dari perubahan yang tampaknya tidak pernah berakhir.
- Difficulties in developing triple gems of Jainism - It is very difficult for the transmigrating soul in this world to develop the Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. Kesulitan dalam mengembangkan permata tripel Jainisme - Hal ini sangat sulit bagi jiwa transmigrasi di dunia ini untuk mengembangkan View Kanan, Kanan Pengetahuan dan Perilaku Kanan. Just like one cannot aspire to become a doctor or lawyer or engineer without going through the development process starting from the very basic skill set developments in primary and secondary schooling, spiritual development also needs to go through several stages or steps. Sama seperti seseorang tidak bisa bercita-cita menjadi dokter atau pengacara atau insinyur tanpa melalui proses pembangunan dimulai dari keterampilan yang sangat dasar yang ditetapkan perkembangan di sekolah dasar dan menengah, pengembangan spiritual juga perlu harus melalui beberapa tahap atau langkah. Depending on one's current spiritual progress and situation, the challenges faced will differ. Tergantung pada kemajuan spiritual saat seseorang dan situasi, tantangan yang dihadapi akan berbeda. Working through the difficulties and applying practical solutions will assist one to continuously make improvements, thereby moving the soul to its goal of ultimate liberation. Bekerja melalui kesulitan dan menerapkan solusi praktis akan membantu seseorang untuk terus melakukan perbaikan, sehingga bergerak jiwa dengan tujuan pembebasan tertinggi.
- Difficulties in practising Jain Dharma - Jain Dharma is characterised by the following; Kesulitan dalam berlatih Jain Dharma - Jain Dharma dicirikan sebagai berikut;
- Forbearance and Forgiveness Sabar dan Pengampunan
- Humility Kerendahan hati
- Straightforwardness Keterusterangan
- Purity Kemurnian
- Truth Kebenaran
- Self-restraint, control of senses and mind Pengendalian diri, pengendalian indera dan pikiran
- External Penance Eksternal Tobat
- Renunciation Penolakan
- Neither attachment nor aversion Baik lampiran maupun keengganan
- Celibacy Bujangan
- In this reflection, the practitioner thinks about the difficulties to practice all of these in the practical world and work through the challenges depending on one's current capabilities and circumstances. Dalam refleksi ini, praktisi berpikir tentang kesulitan untuk mempraktekkan semua di dunia praktis dan bekerja melalui tantangan saat ini tergantung pada kemampuan seseorang dan keadaan.
Jains are encouraged to reflect on these thoughts with the following four virtues or value systems clearly in force. Jain didorong untuk merefleksikan pikiran-pikiran ini dengan empat kebajikan berikut atau sistem nilai yang jelas yang berlaku. They are: Mereka adalah:
- Peace, love and friendship to all. Perdamaian, cinta dan persahabatan untuk semua.
- Appreciation, respect and delight for the achievements of others. Apresiasi, menghormati dan menyenangkan bagi prestasi orang lain.
- Compassion to souls who are suffering. Belas kasihan bagi jiwa yang menderita.
- Equanimity and tolerance in dealing with other's thoughts, words and actions. Ketenangan dan toleransi dalam berurusan dengan, kata-kata lain pikiran dan tindakan.
[ edit ] Tirthankaras [ sunting ] Tirthankaras
Main article: Tirthankaras Artikel utama: Tirthankaras 
Sculpture representing two founders of Jainism: left, Rishabha first of the 24 tirthankara; right Mahavir , the last of those 24, who consolidated and reformed the religious and philosophical system. Patung mewakili dua pendiri Jainisme: kiri, Rishabha pertama Tirthankara 24; kanan Mahavir , yang terakhir dari mereka 24, yang konsolidasi dan mereformasi sistem keagamaan dan filosofis. The purpose of life is to undo the negative effects of karma through mental and physical purification. Tujuan hidup adalah untuk membatalkan efek negatif dari karma melalui pemurnian mental dan fisik. This process leads to liberation accompanied by a great natural inner peace . Proses ini mengarah pada pembebasan disertai dengan besar alam kedamaian batin . A soul is called a 'victor' (in Sanskrit/Pali language, Jina ) because one has achieved liberation by one's own efforts. jiwa adalah disebut 'pemenang' (dalam bahasa Sansekerta / bahasa Pali, Jina) karena satu telah mencapai pembebasan dengan upaya sendiri satu. A Jain is a follower of Jinas ("conquerors"). [ 36 ] [ 37 ] Jinas are spiritually advanced human beings who rediscovered the dharma , became fully liberated from the bondages of karma by conquering attachments and aversions, and taught the spiritual path to benefit all living beings. Seorang Jain adalah pengikut Jinas ("penakluk"). [36] [37] Jinas maju secara rohani manusia yang menemukan kembali dharma , menjadi sepenuhnya dibebaskan dari bondages karma dengan menaklukkan lampiran dan penolakan, dan mengajarkan jalan spiritual untuk manfaat semua makhluk hidup. Jains follow the teachings of 24 special jinas who are known as Tirthankars ("those who have shown the way to salvation from the river of births and deaths"). Jain mengikuti ajaran 24 jinas khusus yang dikenal sebagai Tirthankars ("orang-orang yang telah menunjukkan jalan ke keselamatan dari sungai kelahiran dan kematian"). Jains believe that knowledge of the true living Jain dharma has declined and revived cyclically throughout history. Jain percaya bahwa pengetahuan tentang dharma hidup Jain benar telah menurun dan menghidupkan kembali siklis sepanjang sejarah. Those who rediscover and preach Jain dharma are called Tirthankara . Mereka yang menemukan kembali dan memberitakan dharma Jain disebut Tirthankara . The literal meaning of Tirthankar is ' ford -builder'. Arti harfiah Tirthankar adalah ' ford -pembangun '. Jains compare the process of becoming a pure soul to crossing a swift river, an endeavour requiring patience and care. Jain membandingkan proses menjadi jiwa yang murni untuk melintasi sungai deras, sebuah upaya yang memerlukan kesabaran dan perawatan. A ford-builder has already crossed the river and can therefore guide others. A ford pembangun telah menyeberangi sungai dan karena itu dapat membimbing orang lain.
Jaina tradition identifies Rishabh (also known as Adhinath) as the First Tirthankar of this declining (avasarpini) time cycle (kalachakra). [ 38 ] The 24th, and last Tirthankar is Mahavir , who lived from 599 to 527 BC. tradisi Jaina mengidentifikasi Rishabh (juga dikenal sebagai Adhinath) sebagai Tirthankar Pertama siklus (avasarpini) waktu menurun (kalachakra). [38] The 24, dan Tirthankar terakhir adalah Mahavir , yang tinggal 599-527 SM. The 23rd Tirthankar, Parsva , lived from 877 to 777 BC. [ 14 ] [ 39 ] The last two Tirthankaras: Parsva and Mahavira are historical figures whose existence is recorded [ 39 ] The Tirthankar 23, Parsva , tinggal 877-777 SM. [14] [39] The Tirthankaras terakhir dua: Parsva dan Mahavira adalah tokoh sejarah yang keberadaannya dicatat [39]
The 24 Tirthankaras in chronological order are: Adinath (Rishabhnath), Ajitnath , Sambhavanath , Abhinandan , Sumatinath , Padmaprabhu , Suparshvanath , Chandraprabhu , Pushpadanta (Suvidhinath), Sheetalnath , Shreyansanath , Vasupujya , Vimalnath , Anantnath , Dharmanath , Shantinath , Kunthunath , Arhanath , Mallinath , Munisuvratanath , Naminatha , Neminath , Parshvanath and Mahavir (Vardhamana). 24 Tirthankaras secara kronologis adalah: Adinath (Rishabhnath), Ajitnath , Sambhavanath , Abhinandan , Sumatinath , Padmaprabhu , Suparshvanath , Chandraprabhu , Pushpadanta (Suvidhinath), Sheetalnath , Shreyansanath , Vasupujya , Vimalnath , Anantnath , Dharmanath , Shantinath , Kunthunath , Arhanath , Mallinath , Munisuvratanath , Naminatha , Neminath , Parshvanath dan Mahavir (Vardhamana).
Identified as divine, these individuals are called by title in kannada as ತೀರ್ಥಂಕರ , in Tamil as இறைவன் and in Hindi bhagavan (eg, Bhagavan Rishabha, Bhagavan Parshva, etc.). Diidentifikasi sebagai ilahi, orang-orang ini disebut dengan judul di Kannada sebagai ತೀರ್ಥಂಕರ, di Tamil sebagai இறைவன் dan Bhagavan Hindi (misalnya, Bhagavan Rishabha, Bhagavan Parshva, dll). Tirthankar are not regarded as deities ( தெய்வம் – heavenly powerful souls that are a few steps ahead of us) in the pantheistic or polytheistic sense, but rather as pure souls that have awakened the divine spiritual qualities that lie dormant within each of us. Tirthankar tidak dianggap sebagai dewa (தெய்வம் - surgawi jiwa kuat yang beberapa langkah di depan kita) dalam arti panteistik atau politheisme, tetapi lebih sebagai jiwa murni yang telah terbangun kualitas spiritual ilahi yang tertidur di dalam kita masing-masing.
Only a few souls that reach Arihant status become Thirthankars who take a leadership role in assisting the other souls to move up on the spiritual path. Hanya sedikit jiwa yang mencapai Arihant menjadi Thirthankars status yang mengambil peran kepemimpinan dalam membantu jiwa-jiwa lain untuk bergerak ke atas pada jalan spiritual. Apart from Thirthankars, Jains worship special Arihants such as Bahubali. Selain Thirthankars, Arihants ibadah Jain khusus seperti Bahubali. According to Jain Scriptures, Bahubali (also known as Gommateshvara) was the second of the one hundred sons of the first Tirthankara, Lord Rishabha and king of Podanpur. Menurut Jain Kitab Suci, Bahubali (juga dikenal sebagai Gommateshvara) adalah kedua dari seratus anak dari Tirthankara pertama, Tuhan Rishabha dan raja Podanpur. A statue of Lord Bahubali is located at Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka State. Sebuah patung Tuhan Bahubali terletak di Shravanabelagola di distrik Hassan dari Karnataka Negara. Shravanabelagola is a sacred place of pilgrimage for Jains. Shravanabelagola adalah tempat suci untuk ziarah Jain. When standing at the statue's feet looking up, one sees the saint against the vastness of the sky. Ketika berdiri di kaki patung menengadah, satu melihat suci terhadap luasnya langit. This statue of Bahubali is carved from a single large stone that is fifty-seven feet high. Ini patung Bahubali diukir dari sebuah batu besar tunggal yang lima puluh tujuh meter tingginya. The giant image was carved in 981 AD., by order of Chavundaraya, the minister of the Ganga King Rachamalla.[see photo page 14) Gambar raksasa yang diukir pada 981 AD, atas perintah Chavundaraya, menteri dari Raja Gangga Rachamalla. [. Lihat halaman foto 14)
[ edit ] Structure of Jain Universe and Time Cycles [ sunting ] Struktur Jain Universe dan Waktu Siklus
Main article: Jain Cosmology Artikel utama: Kosmologi Jain Structure of Universe as per the Jain Scriptures. Struktur Universe sesuai dengan Kitab Suci Jain.
Depiction of Siddha Shila as per Jain cosmology , which is abode of infinite Siddhas. Penggambaran Siddha Shila per Jain kosmologi , yang merupakan tempat tinggal Siddha tak terbatas. According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. Menurut kepercayaan Jain, maka alam semesta tidak pernah diciptakan, dan tidak akan pernah berhenti ada. Therefore, it is shaswat (eternal) from that point of view. Oleh karena itu, shaswat (kekal) dari sudut pandang. It has no beginning or end, but time is cyclical with progressive and regressive spirituality phases. Ini tidak memiliki awal atau akhir, tapi waktu siklus dengan fase spiritualitas progresif dan regresif. In other words, within the universe itself there will be constant changes, movements and modifications in line with the macro phases of the time cycles. Dengan kata lain, dalam alam semesta itu sendiri akan ada konstan perubahan, gerakan dan modifikasi sesuai dengan tahapan makro siklus waktu.
The universe consists of infinite amount of Jiva (life force or souls), and infinite amount of Ajiva (lifeless objects). Alam semesta terdiri dari jumlah tak terbatas Jiva (gaya hidup atau jiwa), dan jumlah tak terbatas Ajiva (benda mati). The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown alongside. Bentuk alam semesta seperti yang dijelaskan dalam Jainisme ditampilkan di samping ini. At the very top end of the universe is the residence of the liberated souls that reached the siddha status. Pada akhir paling atas alam semesta adalah kediaman jiwa-jiwa dibebaskan yang mencapai status siddha. This supreme abode is above a crescent like boundary. Ini tinggal tertinggi di atas bulan sabit seperti batas. Below this arch is the Deva Loka (Heaven), where all devas, powerful souls enjoying the positive karmic effects, reside. Di bawah lengkung ini adalah Loka Deva (Surga), dimana semua dewa, jiwa kuat menikmati efek karma positif, berada. According to Jainism, there are thirty heavens in total. [ 40 ] The enjoyment in heaven is time limited and eventually the soul has to be reborn after its positive karmic effect is exhausted. Menurut Jainisme, ada tiga puluh langit total. [40] The kenikmatan di surga adalah waktu yang terbatas dan akhirnya jiwa harus dilahirkan kembali setelah efek positif karma nya habis. Similarly, beneath the "waist" like area are the Narka Loka (Hells). Demikian pula, di bawah "pinggang" seperti daerah adalah Loka Narka (Neraka). There are seven hells, each for a varying degree of suffering a soul has to go through as consequences of its negative karmic effects. Ada tujuh neraka, masing-masing yang berbeda-beda penderitaan jiwa harus melalui sebagai konsekuensi efek negatif karma. From the first to the seventh hell, the degree of suffering increases and light reaching it decreases (with no light in the seventh hell). Dari pertama ke neraka ketujuh, tingkat peningkatan penderitaan dan cahaya yang mencapai itu menurun (tanpa cahaya di neraka ketujuh). The ray of hope is that the suffering in hell is also time limited and the soul will be reborn somewhere else in the universe after its negative karmic effects are exhausted. Sinar harapan adalah bahwa penderitaan di neraka juga waktu yang terbatas dan jiwa akan terlahir kembali di tempat lain di alam semesta setelah efek negatif karma habis. Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life forms reside on the middle part of the universe. Manusia, hewan, serangga, tanaman dan bentuk kehidupan mikroskopis berada pada bagian tengah alam semesta. Ultimate liberation is possible only from this region of the universe. Ultimate pembebasan hanya mungkin dari wilayah alam semesta.
In Jainism, time is divided into Utsarpinis (Progressive Time Cycle) and Avsarpinis (Regressive Time Cycle). Pada Jainisme, waktu dibagi menjadi Utsarpinis (Progresif Waktu Siklus) dan Avsarpinis (Regresif Waktu Siklus). An Utsarpini and an Avsarpini constitute one Time Cycle ( Kalchakra ). Sebuah Utsarpini dan Avsarpini merupakan salah satu Waktu Siklus (Kalchakra). Every Utsarpini and Avsarpini is divided into six unequal periods known as Aras or eras. Setiap Utsarpini dan Avsarpini dibagi menjadi enam periode yang tidak sama dikenal sebagai Aras atau era. During the Utsarpini half cycle, humanity develops from its worst to its best: ethics, progress, happiness, strength, health, and religion each start the cycle at their worst, before eventually completing the cycle at their best and starting the process again. Selama setengah siklus Utsarpini, umat manusia berkembang dari terburuk untuk yang terbaik: etika, kemajuan, kebahagiaan, kekuatan, kesehatan, dan agama masing-masing memulai siklus paling buruk mereka, sebelum akhirnya menyelesaikan siklus pada terbaik mereka dan memulai proses lagi. During the Avsarpini half-cycle, these human experiences deteriorate from the best to the worst. Selama setengah siklus Avsarpini, pengalaman-pengalaman manusia memburuk dari yang terbaik untuk yang terburuk. Jains believe we are currently in the fifth Ara of the Avsarpini phase. Jain percaya kita sedang dalam Ara kelima dari fase Avsarpini.
During the first and last two Aras, the knowledge and practice of dharma lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached liberation from their karma, during the third and fourth Aras. Selama terakhir dua Aras pertama dan, pengetahuan dan praktek dharma selang antara manusia dan kemudian muncul kembali melalui ajaran-ajaran manusia tercerahkan, mereka yang telah mencapai pembebasan dari karma mereka, selama dan keempat Aras ketiga. Traditionally, in our universe and in this time cycle, Rishabh (ऋषभ) is regarded as the first to realize the truth. Secara tradisional, di alam semesta kita dan dalam waktu siklus, Rishabh (ऋषभ) dianggap sebagai orang pertama yang menyadari kebenaran. Mahavira (Vardhamana) was the last (24th) Tirthankara to attain enlightenment (599–527 BC). Mahavira (Vardhamana) adalah (24) terakhir Tirthankara untuk mencapai pencerahan (599-527 SM). For further reading on this aspect of Jainism refer to 'The Jaina Path of Purification' by PS Jaini. [ 41 ] Untuk membaca lebih lanjut tentang aspek ini Jainisme mengacu kepada 'Jalan Jaina dari Pemurnian' oleh PS Jaini. [41]
[ edit ] Jain Festivals [ sunting ] Festival Jain
Jain festivals are characterized by both internal and external celebrations. Jain festival ditandai oleh perayaan internal dan eksternal. The internal celebration is through praying (expressing devotion to Jinas), practicing meditation, spiritual studies and renunciation. Perayaan internal adalah melalui doa (mencerminkan pengabdian kepada Jinas), berlatih meditasi, studi spiritual dan penolakan.
- Paryushan is an important festival among the Jain festivals. Paryushan adalah festival penting di antara festival Jain. It happens during late August/September commencing on the twelfth day of the fortnight of the waning moon cycle and ending in the fourteenth of the fortnight of the waxing moon cycle. Ini terjadi selama bulan Agustus akhir / September dimulai pada hari kedua belas dari dua minggu dari siklus bulan memudarnya dan berakhir di keempat belas dua minggu dari siklus bulan waxing. This is generally a rainy season in Northern parts of India. Ini umumnya merupakan musim hujan di bagian utara India. During this 18 day period [ 42 ] Jain scholars and monks visit temples and explain the Jain philosophy. Selama periode 18 hari [42] ulama Jain dan mengunjungi kuil-kuil biarawan dan menjelaskan filsafat Jain. Jains during this period practice external austerities such as fasting, limiting their normal activities so as to reduce the harm to worms and insects that thrive during this season. Jain selama periode pertapaan praktek eksternal seperti puasa, membatasi kegiatan normal mereka sehingga dapat mengurangi bahaya untuk cacing dan serangga yang berkembang selama musim ini. At the conclusion of the festivities, a reflection on the past is encouraged, and Pratikraman is done for repentance of faults. Pada akhir perayaan, refleksi pada masa lalu didorong, dan Pratikraman dilakukan untuk pertobatan dari kesalahan. Forgiveness is given to and asked for from all those considered. Pengampunan diberikan kepada dan meminta dari semua dipertimbangkan.
- Mahavir Jayanti , [ 43 ] The birthday of Mahavir, the last Thirthankar is celebrated on the thirteenth day of the fortnight of the waxing moon, in the month of Chaitra. Mahavir Jayanti , [43] Ulang tahun Mahavir, yang Thirthankar terakhir dirayakan pada hari yang ketiga belas dua minggu bulan waxing, pada bulan Chaitra. This day occurs in late March or early April on the Gregorian calendar. Hari ini terjadi pada akhir Maret atau awal April pada kalender Gregorian. Lectures are held to preach the path of virtue. Kuliah diadakan untuk memberitakan jalan kebajikan. People meditate and offer prayers. Orang-orang bermeditasi dan shalat.
- Diwali (Deepavali or festival of lights) is celebrated on the new moon day of Kartik, usually in late October or early November on the Gregorian calendar. Diwali (Deepavali atau festival lampu) dirayakan pada hari bulan baru Kartik, biasanya pada akhir Oktober atau November awal dalam kalender Gregorian. On the night of that day, Mahavir, the last Thirthankar attained Nirvana or deliverance and attained liberation from the bondage of all karmas. Pada malam hari itu, Mahavir, yang Thirthankar terakhir mencapai Nirvana atau pelepasan dan mencapai pembebasan dari perbudakan dari semua karma. During the night of Diwali, holy hymns are recited and meditation is done on Mahavir. Selama malam Diwali, himne suci dibacakan dan meditasi dilakukan pada Mahavir. And on the very second day of Diwali they celebrate their New Year. Dan pada hari kedua Diwali mereka merayakan Tahun Baru.
- Ashadh Chaturdasi, The sacred commencement of Chaturmas takes place on the 14th day of the fortnight of the waxing moon of Ashad. Ashadh Chaturdasi, Dimulainya suci Chaturmas terjadi pada hari ke-14 dari dua minggu bulan waxing dari Ashad. The Jain monks and nuns remain where they happen to be for four months until the 14th day of Kartik Shukla. Para biarawan dan biarawati Jain tetap di mana mereka berada selama empat bulan sampai hari 14 Kartik Shukla. During these four months the monks give daily discourses, undertake religious ceremonies, etc. Selama empat bulan para biksu memberikan wacana sehari-hari, melakukan upacara keagamaan, dll
- Shrutha panchami or Gyan Panchami is on the fifth day of the fortnight of the waxing moon of Kartik (the fifth day after Diwali). Shrutha panchami atau Gyan Panchami adalah pada hari kelima dari dua minggu bulan waxing dari Kartik (hari kelima setelah Diwali). This day is devoted for pure knowledge. Hari ini dikhususkan untuk pengetahuan murni. On this day books preserved in the religious libraries are cleaned and studied. Pada hari buku ini disimpan di perpustakaan agama dibersihkan dan dipelajari.
- Apart from Mahavir Jayanti and Diwali , South Indian Tamil Jains of Digambara sect also celebrate Tamil New Year , Pongal (harvest festival), Avani Avittam (renewal of sacred thread called 'poonool') similar to most Tamils. Selain Mahavir Jayanti dan Diwali , India Selatan Tamil Jain dari Digambara sekte juga merayakan Tahun Baru Tamil , Pongal (festival panen), Avani Avittam (pembaharuan dari benang suci yang disebut 'poonool') mirip dengan Tamil kebanyakan.
[ edit ] Customs and practices [ sunting ] Bea dan praktek
Jains are strict vegetarians. Jain adalah vegetarian ketat. They avoid eating root vegetables in general, as cutting root from a plant kills it unlike other parts of the plant ( leaf, fruit, seed etc). Mereka menghindari makan sayuran akar pada umumnya, memotong akar dari tanaman membunuh itu tidak seperti bagian lain dari tanaman (daun, buah, biji dll). Furthermore, according to Jain texts, root vegetables contain infinite microorganism called nigodas . Selanjutnya, sesuai dengan teks Jain, sayuran akar mengandung mikroorganisme yang tak terbatas disebut nigodas . Followers of Jain dharma eat before the night falls. Pengikut Jain dharma makan sebelum malam jatuh. They filter water regularly so as to remove any small insects that may be present and boil (and may cool) the water prior to consumption, as heated water will not be the suitable base for micro organisms to develop immediately. Mereka menyaring air secara teratur sehingga dapat menghilangkan serangga kecil yang mungkin hadir dan mendidih (dan mungkin dingin) air sebelum dikonsumsi, karena air dipanaskan tidak akan menjadi dasar cocok untuk organisme mikro untuk mengembangkan segera.
Jain monks and nuns practice strict asceticism and strive to make their current birth their last, thus ending their cycle of transmigration. [ 44 ] The lay men and women also pursue the same five major vows to the limited extent depending on their capability and circumstances. Jain biarawan dan biarawati yang ketat praktik asketisme dan berusaha untuk membuat kelahiran mereka saat terakhir mereka, dengan demikian mengakhiri siklus mereka transmigrasi. [44] The awam pria dan wanita juga mengejar lima sama utama sumpah apabila terbatas tergantung pada kemampuan dan keadaan. Following the primary non-violence vow, the laity usually choose professions that revere and protect life and totally avoid violent livelihoods. Setelah sumpah non-kekerasan primer, awam biasanya memilih profesi yang menghormati dan melindungi kehidupan dan mata pencaharian benar-benar menghindari kekerasan.
Jain monks and nuns walk barefoot and sweep the ground in front of them to avoid killing insects or other tiny beings. biarawan dan biarawati Jain berjalan tanpa alas kaki dan menyapu tanah di depan mereka untuk menghindari membunuh serangga atau makhluk kecil yang lain.
Even though all life is considered sacred by the Jains, human life is deemed the highest form of life. Meskipun semua kehidupan dianggap sakral oleh Jain, kehidupan manusia dianggap bentuk tertinggi kehidupan. For this reason, it is considered vital never to harm or upset any person. Untuk alasan ini, dianggap penting tidak pernah untuk menyakiti atau kesal setiap orang.
Along with the Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will and practice forgiveness. Seiring dengan Lima Sumpah, Jain menghindari menyimpan sakit akan dan pengampunan praktek. They believe that atma (soul) can lead one to becoming parmatma (liberated soul) and this must come from one's inner self. Mereka percaya bahwa atma (jiwa) dapat mengakibatkan seseorang untuk menjadi parmatma (jiwa dibebaskan) dan ini harus datang dari dalam diri satu. Jains refrain from all violence (ahimsa) and recommend that sinful activities be avoided. Jain menahan diri dari segala kekerasan (ahimsa) dan merekomendasikan bahwa aktivitas berdosa dihindari.
Pratikraman (Turning back from Transgression) is a practice of confession and repentance. Pratikraman (Menghidupkan kembali dari Pelanggaran) adalah praktek pengakuan dan pertobatan. This is a process of looking back at the bad thoughts and actions carried out during daily activities and learn from this process so as to resolve not to commit those mistakes again. Ini adalah proses melihat kembali pada pikiran buruk dan tindakan yang dilakukan selama kegiatan sehari-hari dan belajar dari proses ini sehingga untuk menyelesaikan tidak melakukan kesalahan itu lagi. Forgiving others for their faults, extending friendship and asking forgiveness for their own wrongful acts without reservation is part of this process. Mengampuni orang lain untuk kesalahan mereka, memperluas persahabatan dan meminta maaf atas tindakan mereka sendiri tidak sah tanpa reservasi adalah bagian dari proses ini. This enables Jains to get away from the tendency of finding fault in others, criticizing others and to develop habit of self-analysis, self-improvement and introspection. Hal ini memungkinkan Jain untuk menjauh dari kecenderungan menemukan kesalahan pada orang lain, mengkritik orang lain dan untuk mengembangkan kebiasaan analisis-diri, pengembangan diri dan introspeksi.
Jains practice Samayika , which is a Sanskrit word meaning equanimity . Jain praktek Samayika , yang merupakan bahasa Sansekerta arti kata keseimbangan batin. During this practice, they remain calm and undisturbed. Selama latihan ini, mereka tetap tenang dan tidak terganggu. This helps in recollecting the teachings of Thirthankars and discarding sinful activities for a minimum of 48 minutes. Hal ini membantu dalam mengingat-ingat ajaran Thirthankars dan membuang aktivitas berdosa selama minimal 48 menit.
Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced (particularly through the guidance of Shrimad Rajchandra ) by Jain tenets such as peaceful, protective living and honesty, and made them an integral part of his own philosophy . [ 45 ] Mahatma Gandhi sangat dipengaruhi (terutama melalui bimbingan Shrimad Rajchandra ) dengan ajaran Jain seperti damai, hidup pelindung dan kejujuran, dan membuat mereka merupakan bagian integral dari sendiri filsafat . [45]
Jainism has several different traditions. Jainisme memiliki tradisi yang berbeda. Even though there are some little differences in customs and practices among them, they are inconsequential. Meskipun ada beberapa perbedaan kecil dalam kebiasaan dan praktek-praktek di antara mereka, mereka adalah ngawur. Each tradition brings a unique perspective and completes the picture in the true sense of Non-Absolutism (Anekantvad). Setiap tradisi membawa perspektif yang unik dan melengkapi gambar dalam pengertian yang sebenarnya Non-Absolutisme (Anekantvad). For this reason Jains are encouraged to keep their tradition, and at the same time respect other practices so as to complete the Jain view. Untuk alasan ini Jain didorong untuk mempertahankan tradisi mereka, dan pada praktek menghargai waktu yang sama lain sehingga untuk melengkapi tampilan Jain. All traditions unanimously accept and believe in the Jain philosophy including the major vows of Non-violence, Truthfulness, Non-stealing, Celibacy and Non-possession. Semua tradisi dengan suara bulat menerima dan percaya dalam filsafat Jain termasuk utama kaul Non-kekerasan, Sejati, Non-mencuri, Selibat dan Non-kepemilikan.
Jainism is mainly divided into two major sects, namely Shvetambar and Digambar. Jainisme ini terutama dibagi menjadi dua golongan besar, yaitu Shvetambar dan Digambar. Jainism has a distinct idea underlying Tirthankar worship. Jainisme memiliki ide yang berbeda yang mendasari ibadah Tirthankar. The physical form is not worshipped, but their characteristics (virtues, qualities) are praised and emulated. Bentuk fisik tidak menyembah, tapi karakteristik mereka (kebajikan, kualitas) dipuji dan dicontoh. Tirthankaras remain role-models, and sects such as the Sthanakavasi, Terapanth stringently reject idol worship. Tirthankaras tetap role-model, dan sekte seperti Sthanakavasi, Terapanth ketat menolak penyembahan berhala. However Murtipujak and Digamabar sects allow praying before idol so as to assist in stimulating and focusing thoughts while praying. Namun Murtipujak dan sekte Digamabar memungkinkan berdoa sebelum idola sehingga dapat membantu dalam mendorong dan memfokuskan pikiran sambil berdoa.
[ edit ] Digambar [ sunting ] Digambar
Main article: Digambar Artikel utama: Digambar In the Digambar tradition, idols of Tirthankars are worshipped. Dalam tradisi Digambar, berhala Tirthankars disembah. However they are not decorated with ornaments. Namun mereka tidak dihiasi dengan ornamen. The Digambar monks who have reached the highest stages of spiritual state do not wear any clothes. Para biarawan Digambar yang telah mencapai tahap tertinggi negara spiritual tidak mengenakan pakaian apapun. They carry in their hands a special kind of pot and a broom made of fallen peacock's feathers. Mereka membawa di tangan mereka khusus jenis pot dan sebuah sapu yang terbuat dari bulu merak yang jatuh. They eat food once a day with both their palms folded in the shape of a bowl (without using a plate). Mereka makan makanan sekali sehari dengan kedua telapak tangan mereka dilipat dalam bentuk mangkuk (tanpa menggunakan piring).
[ edit ] Shvetambar- Murtipujak (Idol worshippers) [ sunting ] Shvetambar-Murtipujak (Idol penyembah)
Main article: Svetambara Artikel utama: Svetambara The monks and nuns of this sect wear white dress. Para biarawan dan biarawati dari sekte ini memakai gaun putih. Worship and spiritual endeavors are equal for both men and women. Ibadah dan spiritual upaya sama untuk pria dan wanita. They worship and decorate the images of Tirthankars. Mereka menyembah dan menghiasi gambar Tirthankars.
[ edit ] Shvetambar – Sthanakvasi [ sunting ] Shvetambar - Sthanakvasi
Main article: Sthanakvasi Artikel utama: Sthanakvasi This sect emphasizes on the study of scriptures (Agam) and follow the Jain path to soul purification. sekte ini menekankan pada studi tentang kitab (Agam) dan mengikuti jalan Jain untuk pemurnian jiwa. They do not worship images and therefore do not have temples. Mereka tidak menyembah gambar dan karena itu tidak memiliki candi. However, they build prayer halls (sthanaks) where they carry on their religious fasts, festivals, practices, prayers, discourses, etc. Further, the ascetics of Sthanakvasis cover their mouth with strips of cloth. Namun, mereka membangun ruang doa (sthanaks) dimana mereka melakukan puasa agama mereka, festival, praktek, doa, wacana, dll Selanjutnya, para pertapa dari Sthanakvasis menutup mulut mereka dengan potongan kain.
[ edit ] Shvetambar – Terapanth [ sunting ] Shvetambar - Terapanth
Shvetambar Terapanth sect arose from Sthanakvasis ascetic sect and was founded in 1760 AD by Acharya Bhikshu . Shvetambar Terapanth sekte berasal dari sekte pertapa Sthanakvasis dan didirikan pada 1760 Masehi oleh Acharya bhikshu . Terapanthis also do not worship idols and the ascetics use a piece of white cloth to cover their mouth. Terapanthis juga tidak menyembah berhala dan pertapa menggunakan sepotong kain putih untuk menutup mulut mereka. Ascetics of all Shvetambar sects use wooden pots for seeking alms. Pertapa dari semua sekte Shvetambar menggunakan pot kayu untuk mencari sedekah.
[ edit ] Jain worship and rituals [ sunting ] ibadah dan ritual Jain
Jains praying at the feet of a statue of Lord Bahubali. Jain berdoa di kaki patung Tuhan Bahubali. 
Om Hrim Siddhi Chakra used by Jains in dravya puja Om Hrim Siddhi Chakra digunakan oleh Jain di dravya puja Every day most Jains bow and say their universal prayer, the "Namokara Mantra," also known variously as Navkar Mantra , Parmesthi Mantra , Panch Namaskar Mantra . Setiap Jain paling hari busur dan memanjatkan doa universal mereka, "Namokara Mantra," juga dikenal beragam seperti Navkar Mantra , Parmesthi Mantra , Panch Namaskar Mantra . The purpose of jain worship or prayer is to break the barriers of the worldly attachments and desires, so as to assist in the liberation of the soul. Tujuan ibadah Jain atau doa adalah untuk memecahkan hambatan lampiran duniawi dan keinginan, sehingga dapat membantu dalam pembebasan jiwa. Jain rituals in general include: Jain ritual dalam termasuk umum:
- Panch-kalyanak Pratishtha , Installation with five auspicious events. Panch-kalyanak Pratishtha , Instalasi dengan lima peristiwa keberuntungan.
- Pratikramana , Repentance of sins. Pratikramana , Pertobatan dosa.
- Samayika , Meditation Samayika , Meditasi
- Guru Vandana , Chaitya Vandana , and other sutras to honor ascetics. Guru Vandana , Chaitya Vandana, dan sutra lainnya untuk menghormati pertapa.
Over time, some sections of Jains also pray to deities, which are yakshas and yakshinis. Seiring waktu, beberapa bagian Jain juga berdoa kepada dewa, yang yaksha dan yakshinis.
There are basically two types of prayers: Pada dasarnya ada dua jenis doa:
- Dravya Puja (with symbolic offerings of material objects) Dravya Puja (dengan persembahan simbolik obyek-obyek material)
- Bhav Puja (with deep feeling and meditation) Bhav Puja (dengan perasaan yang dalam dan meditasi)
The material offerings made during the prayer are merely symbolic and are for the benefit of the offerer. Bahan persembahan yang dilakukan selama doa hanyalah simbolis dan untuk kepentingan persembahan. The action and ritual of offering keeps the mind in meditative state. Tindakan dan ritual menawarkan menjaga pikiran dalam keadaan meditasi. The symbolism of prayer is so strong it assists the devotee to concentrate on the virtues of Arihantas and Thirthankaras. Simbolisme doa begitu kuat sehingga membantu pemuja untuk berkonsentrasi pada kebajikan dari Arihantas dan Thirthankaras. Above all, prayer is not performed with a desire for any material goal. Di atas segalanya, doa tidak dilakukan dengan keinginan untuk tujuan material. Jains are clear that the Jinas reside in moksha (Siddha-loka, the permanent abode of the siddhas)and are completely detached from the world. Jain jelas bahwa Jinas berada di moksha (Siddha-loka, tempat tinggal tetap dari Siddha) dan benar-benar terlepas dari dunia. Jains have built temples where idols of tirthankaras are revered. Jain telah membangun candi di mana berhala tirthankaras dihormati. Rituals include offering of symbolic objects and praising Tirthankaras in song. Ritual termasuk menawarkan benda simbolis dan memuji Tirthankaras dalam lagu. There are some traditions within Jainism that have no prayer at all, and are focused on meditation through scripture reading and philosophical discussions. Ada beberapa tradisi dalam Jainisme yang doa sama sekali, dan difokuskan pada meditasi melalui membaca tulisan suci dan diskusi filosofis.
[ edit ] Preparation for Prayer [ sunting ] Persiapan Doa
- Body Cleansing: A bath should be taken before the prayer. Body Cleansing: mandi keluar harus diambil sebelum shalat. A clean body prepares and assists the mind to be in spiritual mode. Tubuh yang bersih dan membantu mempersiapkan pikiran untuk berada dalam mode rohani. This is also symbolic of washing one's dirt or karmas. Ini juga simbolis mencuci kotoran seseorang atau karma. In order to assist in the meditative process place saffron paste or sandal paste on ring finger and anoint the forehead. Dalam rangka membantu dalam proses saffron paste tempat meditasi atau sisipkan sandal pada jari manis dan mengurapi dahi. This may be applied to earlobes, neck and other acupressure parts of the body. Hal ini dapat diterapkan untuk telinga, leher dan bagian akupresur lain dari tubuh.
- Clothes: Simple, clean washed clothes are worn. Pakaian: Simple, pakaian dicuci bersih yang dipakai. White clothing is preferred. Pakaian putih lebih disukai. Traditionally, men wear non-stitched cloths (dhotis and khes). Secara tradisional, laki-laki non-dijahit memakai kain (dhotis dan khes).
[ edit ] Ashta Prakari Puja (Eight Symbolic Offering Prayer) [ sunting ] Ashta Prakari Puja (Delapan Simbolik Penawaran Doa)
- Jal Puja (Water) Jal Puja (Air)
Water Symbolizes the life's ocean of birth, struggle and death. Melambangkan air laut hidup kelahiran, perjuangan dan kematian. Every living being continuously travels through the cycles of birth, life, death and misery. Setiap makhluk hidup terus berjalan melalui siklus kelahiran, kematian hidup, dan kesengsaraan. This prayer reminds the devotee to live with honesty, truth, love and compassion toward all living beings. Doa ini mengingatkan pemuja untuk hidup dengan kejujuran, cinta kebenaran, dan kasih sayang terhadap semua makhluk hidup.
- Chandan Puja (Sandal-wood) Chandan Puja (Sandal-kayu)
Sandal wood paste symbolizes Right Knowledge. Sandal kayu paste melambangkan Hak Pengetahuan. The devotee reflects on Right Knowledge with clear, proper understanding of reality from different perspectives. pemuja ini mencerminkan tentang Hak Pengetahuan dengan jelas, pemahaman yang benar tentang realitas dari perspektif yang berbeda.
- Pushpa Puja (Flower) Pushpa Puja (Bunga)
Flowers symbolize Right Conduct. Bunga melambangkan Hak Perilaku. The devotee remembers that conduct should be like a flower that provides fragrance and beauty to all living beings without discrimination. pemuja akan mengingat perilaku yang harus seperti bunga yang memberikan keharuman dan keindahan untuk semua makhluk hidup tanpa diskriminasi.
- Dhup Puja (Incense) Dhup Puja (Incense)
The incense stick symbolizes renunciation. Tongkat dupa melambangkan penolakan. While burning itself, it provides fragrance to others. Sementara pembakaran sendiri, memberikan keharuman kepada orang lain. This reminds the devotee to live life for the benefit of others, which ultimately leads to liberation. Hal ini mengingatkan pemuja untuk hidup untuk kepentingan orang lain, yang akhirnya mengarah ke pembebasan.
- Deepak Puja (Oil Lamp) Deepak Puja (Lampu Oil)
The flame of the oil lamp represents pure consciousness or a soul without any karmic bondage. Nyala lampu minyak merupakan kesadaran murni atau jiwa tanpa ikatan karma. The devotee is reminded to follow the five major vows so as to attain liberation. pemuja ini mengingatkan untuk mengikuti lima besar janji sehingga untuk mencapai pembebasan.
- Akshat Puja (Rice) Akshat Puja (Rice)
One cannot grow rice plants by seeding with household rice. Seseorang tidak dapat tumbuh tanaman padi oleh penyemaian dengan nasi rumah tangga. Symbolically it means that rice is the last birth. Secara simbolis itu berarti beras yang kelahiran terakhir. With this prayer, the devotee strives to make all effort in this life to get liberation. Dengan doa ini, pemuja berupaya untuk membuat semua upaya dalam hidup ini untuk mendapatkan pembebasan.
- Naivedya Puja (Tasty food) Naivedya Puja (Tasty makanan)
With this prayer, the devotee strives to reduce or eliminate attachment. Dengan doa ini, pemuja berupaya untuk mengurangi atau menghilangkan lampiran.
- Fal Puja (Fruit) FAL Puja (Buah)
Fruit symbolizes moksha or liberation. Buah melambangkan moksha atau pembebasan. The devotee is reminded to perform duties without any expectation and have love and compassion for all living beings so as to attain the ultimate fruit,moksha. pemuja ini diingatkan untuk melaksanakan tugas tanpa harapan apapun dan memiliki cinta dan kasih sayang untuk semua makhluk hidup sehingga dapat mencapai buah utama, moksha.
[ edit ] Dev Shastra Guru Puja (Prayer for Arihants/Siddhas, Scriptures, and Teachers) [ sunting ] Guru Dev Shastra Puja (Doa untuk Arihants / Siddha, Kitab Suci, dan Guru)
Invocation begins with Namokar Mantra and Chattari Mangalam. Doa dimulai dengan Namokar Mantra dan Chattari Mangalam. In this prayer the devotee bows to Siddhas, scriptures and monks who are on the path of Right View, Knowledge and Conduct. Dalam doa ini pemuja busur untuk Siddha, suci dan biarawan yang berada di jalur Pandangan Benar, Pengetahuan dan Perilaku. This prayer is done by taking three full cloves and holding one clove at a time between two ring fingers while keeping the clove head pointed forward while offering and reciting. Doa ini dilakukan dengan mengambil tiga siung penuh dan memegang satu cengkeh pada waktu antara dua jari manis sambil menjaga kepala cengkeh menunjuk ke depan sambil menawarkan dan membaca. First Clove: The devotees think of the Arihants/Siddhas/Thirthankaras, Scriptures and Teachers, so that they come into their thoughts. Pertama Cengkeh: Para penggemar memikirkan Arihants / Siddha / Thirthankaras, Kitab Suci dan Guru, sehingga mereka datang ke dalam pikiran mereka.
Second Clove: The devotees take the next step of retaining the above three in their thoughts. Kedua Cengkeh: Para penggemar mengambil langkah berikutnya penahan di atas tiga di pikiran mereka.
Third Clove: The devotees take the last step of physically requesting them to be near them so as to guide them through on the right path. Ketiga Cengkeh: Para penggemar mengambil langkah terakhir dari fisik meminta mereka untuk menjadi dekat mereka sehingga untuk membimbing mereka melalui di jalan yang benar.
The offerings here are similar to the Ashta Prakari Puja with flowers replaced with yellow rice, tasty food with white coconut, fruit with almond in its shell. Sesaji di sini adalah serupa dengan Ashta Prakari Puja dengan bunga diganti dengan nasi kuning, makanan yang lezat dengan kelapa putih, buah dengan almond di cangkangnya.
Barah Bhavana (12 reflections of mind) is sung as a song. Barah Bhavana (12 refleksi dari pikiran) yang dinyanyikan sebagai sebuah lagu. After that prayer of peace for all living beings recited followed by Namokar Mantra . Setelah itu doa damai untuk semua makhluk hidup dibacakan diikuti oleh Namokar Mantra .
At the conclusion, Visarjan (closing) prayer is recited, which means knowingly or unknowingly if any mistakes are committed during the prayer please forgive. Pada kesimpulan, Visarjan (penutupan) dibacakan doa, yang berarti sadar atau tidak sadar jika ada kesalahan yang dilakukan selama doa silahkan mengampuni.
[ edit ] Vegetarianism [ sunting ] Vegetarianisme
All living beings require food for their survival. Semua makhluk hidup memerlukan makanan untuk kelangsungan hidup mereka. Jains practice strict vegetarianism . Jain praktek ketat vegetarianisme . The practice of vegetarianism is instrumental for the practice of non-violence and peaceful co-operative co-existence. Praktek vegetarianisme merupakan instrumen untuk praktek non-kekerasan dan damai kooperatif co-eksistensi. Basic non-violence principles can be performed depending on ones capability and specific situation in terms of meeting ones life's demands and expectations. Dasar prinsip non-kekerasan dapat dilakukan tergantung pada kemampuan dan situasi yang spesifik dalam hal memenuhi permintaan yang hidup dan harapan. Jainism acknowledges that it is impossible to discharge one's duties without some degree of himsa/violence, but encourages to minimise as much as possible.For example: A common man may need leather belt or shoes (this is himsa) so he/she may minimise vilolence by purchasing only one pair of shoes instead of 10 pairs or he/she may use plastic slippers or he/she may choose to wear those leather products which are not obtained by killing animals (rather obtained from a naturally dead animals). Jainisme mengakui bahwa tidak mungkin untuk tugas discharge seseorang tanpa beberapa derajat himsa / kekerasan, tapi mendorong untuk meminimalkan sebanyak possible.For contoh: Seorang pria biasa mungkin perlu sabuk kulit atau sepatu (ini adalah himsa) sehingga dia dapat meminimalkan vilolence dengan membeli hanya sepasang sepatu, bukan 10 pasang atau dia / dia mungkin menggunakan sandal plastik atau dia dapat memilih untuk memakai produk-produk kulit mereka yang tidak diperoleh dengan membunuh binatang (bukan diperoleh dari hewan mati secara alami). Jains usually do not consume root vegetables such as potatoes , garlic , onions , carrots , radishes , cassava , sweet potatoes , turnips , etc., as the plant needed to be killed in the process of accessing these prior to their end of life cycle. Jain biasanya tidak mengkonsumsi sayuran seperti kentang , bawang putih , bawang , wortel , lobak , ubi kayu , ubi jalar , lobak , dll, sebagai tanaman yang diperlukan untuk dibunuh dalam proses mengakses ini sebelum akhir siklus hidup mereka. In addition, the root vegetables interact with soil and therefore contain far more micro-organisms than other vegetables. Selain itu, sayuran akar berinteraksi dengan tanah dan karena itu mengandung jauh lebih mikro-organisme dari sayuran lainnya. However, they consume rhizomes such as dried turmeric and dried ginger . Brinjals are also not consumed by some Jains owing to the large number of seeds in the vegetable, as a seed is a form of life. Namun, mereka mengkonsumsi rimpang seperti kering kunyit dan kering jahe . Brinjals juga tidak dikonsumsi oleh beberapa Jain karena sejumlah besar biji dalam sayuran, seperti benih adalah suatu bentuk kehidupan. Some Jains do not consume food left overnight because of contamination by microbes. Beberapa Jain tidak mengkonsumsi makanan yang tersisa semalam karena kontaminasi oleh mikroba. Most Jain recipes substitute potato with plantain . [ 46 ] Kebanyakan resep Jain pengganti kentang dengan pisang . [46]
[ edit ] Jain fasting [ sunting ] puasa Jain
Fasting is one of the main tools for practicing external austerity. Puasa adalah salah satu alat utama untuk berlatih penghematan eksternal. It helps to keep the demands of the body under check and assists in the focus on the upliftment of the soul. Ini membantu untuk menjaga tuntutan tubuh dalam memeriksa dan membantu dalam fokus pada upliftment jiwa. Depending on the capacity of an individual, there are several types of fasting: Tergantung pada kapasitas individu, ada beberapa jenis puasa:
- Complete fasting: giving up food and water completely for a period Lengkap puasa: meninggalkan makanan dan air sepenuhnya untuk jangka waktu
- Partial fasting: eating less than you need to avoid hunger Partial puasa: makan lebih sedikit dari yang Anda butuhkan untuk menghindari kelaparan
- Vruti Sankshepa: limiting the number of items of food eaten Vruti Sankshepa: membatasi jumlah item makanan yang dimakan
- Rasa Parityaga: giving up favourite foods Rasa Parityaga: menyerah makanan favorit
During fasting one immerses oneself in religious activities such as worshiping, serving the saints (monks and nuns & to be in their proximity), reading scriptures, meditating, and donating to the right recipients. Selama berpuasa satu menenggelamkan diri dalam kegiatan keagamaan seperti menyembah, melayani orang-orang kudus (biarawan dan biarawati & berada di dekat mereka), membaca kitab suci, bermeditasi, dan menyumbangkan ke penerima yang tepat. However, before starting the fast Jains take a small vow known as pachkaan . Namun, sebelum memulai Jain cepat mengambil sumpah kecil yang dikenal sebagai pachkaan. A person taking the vow is bound to it and breaking it is considered to be a bad practice. Orang mengambil sumpah terikat untuk itu dan melanggar itu dianggap sebagai praktek yang buruk.
Most Jains fast at special times, such as during festivals (known as Parva. Paryushana and Ashthanhika are the main Parva s, which occurs 3 times in a year) and on holy days (eighth & fourteenth days of the moon cycle). Kebanyakan Jain cepat pada saat-saat khusus, seperti selama festival (dikenal sebagai Parva dan. Paryushana Ashthanhika adalah s Parva utama, yang terjadi 3 kali dalam setahun) dan pada hari suci (& empat belas hari kedelapan dari siklus bulan). Paryushana is the most prominent festival (lasting eight days for Svetambara Jains and ten days for Digambars) during the monsoon. Paryushana adalah festival paling menonjol (berlangsung delapan hari untuk Svetambara Jain dan sepuluh hari untuk Digambars) selama musim hujan. The monsoon is considered the best time of fasting due to lenient weather. Musim hujan dianggap sebagai waktu terbaik berpuasa karena cuaca ringan. However, a Jain may fast at any time, especially if he/she feels some mistake (negative karma generally known as paap or 'papa') has been committed. Namun, Jain cepat dapat setiap waktu, terutama jika dia merasa beberapa kesalahan (karma negatif umumnya dikenal sebagai PAAP atau 'papa') telah dilakukan. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do whatever they can to maintain self-control. Variasi dalam puasa mendorong Jain untuk melakukan apapun yang mereka bisa untuk mempertahankan kontrol diri.
A unique ritual in this religion involves a holy fasting until death called sallekhana . Sebuah ritual unik dalam agama ini melibatkan suci puasa sampai mati disebut sallekhana . Through this one achieves a death with dignity and dispassion as well as a possible reduction of or elimination of negative karma. [ 47 ] When a person is aware of approaching death, and feels that s/he has completed all duties, s/he willingly ceases to eat or drink gradually. Melalui satu ini mencapai kematian dengan martabat dan dispassion serta kemungkinan penurunan atau penghapusan karma negatif. [47] Ketika seseorang menyadari mendekati kematian, dan merasa bahwa s / ia telah menyelesaikan semua tugas, s / dia rela berhenti makan atau minum secara bertahap. This form of dying is also called Santhara / Samaadhi . Bentuk sekarat juga disebut Santhara / Samaadhi. It can be as long as 12 years with gradual reduction in food intake. Hal ini dapat selama 12 tahun dengan pengurangan bertahap dalam asupan makanan. Considered extremely spiritual and creditable, with all awareness of the transitory nature of human experience, it has recently led to a controversy. Dianggap sangat spiritual dan dikreditkan, dengan segala kesadaran akan bersifat sementara pengalaman manusia, baru-baru ini menyebabkan kontroversi. In Rajasthan, a lawyer petitioned the High Court of Rajasthan to declare santhara illegal. Di Rajasthan, pengacara mengajukan petisi kepada Pengadilan Tinggi Rajasthan untuk menyatakan santhara ilegal. Jains see santhara as spiritual detachment, a declaration that a person has finished with this world and now chooses to leave. Jain melihat santhara sebagai detasemen rohani, pernyataan bahwa seseorang telah selesai dengan dunia ini dan sekarang memilih untuk pergi. This choice however requires a great deal of spiritual accomplishment and maturity as a pre-requisite. Pilihan ini namun membutuhkan banyak pemenuhan rohani dan kedewasaan sebagai prasyarat.
[ edit ] Types of Fasting [ sunting ] Jenis-jenis Puasa
Aathai : A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for eight days. Aathai: Seseorang yang mempraktikkan bentuk berpuasa tidak akan makan apa pun selama delapan hari. During this period, they live only by drinking previously boiled water (8 hours ago at the maximum). Selama periode ini, mereka hidup hanya dengan minum air matang sebelumnya (8 jam lalu maksimum). They drink water after going to temple or after prayer that is done after 11 o'clock and before sunset. Mereka minum air sesudah ke candi atau setelah doa yang dilakukan setelah 11:00 dan sebelum matahari terbenam. Normally on 8th day of fasting, the success is celebrated by the community by organising a procession to the temple. Biasanya pada hari ke 8 puasa, keberhasilan dirayakan oleh masyarakat dengan menyelenggarakan prosesi ke kuil. On the 9th day, the person will stop fasting. Pada hari ke-9, orang tersebut akan berhenti puasa. The relatives and friends will come and help the person to break the fast. Kerabat dan teman-teman akan datang dan membantu orang untuk berbuka puasa.
Tela A person practising this form of fasting will not eat any thing for three days. Tela Seseorang yang mempraktikkan bentuk berpuasa tidak akan makan apa pun selama tiga hari. During this period, they live by drinking previously boiled water. Selama periode ini, mereka hidup dengan minum air sebelumnya mendidih. Normally on the 3rd day of fasting their successful completion is celebrated. Biasanya pada 3 hari puasa mereka berhasil menyelesaikan dirayakan. This is also called "Atham". Ini juga disebut "Atham". A similar fast lasting two days is called "Chattha". Sebuah cepat serupa yang berlangsung selama dua hari ini disebut "Chattha".
Masskhaman : A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for thirty days. Masskhaman: Seseorang yang mempraktikkan bentuk berpuasa tidak akan makan apapun selama tiga puluh hari. During this period, they live by drinking previously boiled water. Selama periode ini, mereka hidup dengan minum air sebelumnya mendidih. Normally on the 30th day of fasting their successful completion is celebrated. Biasanya pada 30 hari puasa mereka berhasil menyelesaikan dirayakan.
Olee : In this practice, for 9 days food it taken without any additive that provides taste such as ghee (clarified butter), spices, salt, etc. Olee: Dalam praktek ini, selama 9 makanan hari itu diambil tanpa aditif yang memberikan rasa seperti ghee (diperjelas mentega), rempah-rempah, garam, dll
Varshitap : This is a difficult form of fasting and demands a high level of skill and discipline; it is based on the story of Lord Rishabh not eating or drinking for 400 days. Varshitap: Ini adalah bentuk sulit puasa dan tuntutan tingkat tinggi keterampilan dan disiplin; itu didasarkan pada kisah Tuhan Rishabh tidak makan atau minum selama 400 hari. It is possible for people to try a variation of Varshitap by eating every alternate day, in general. Adalah mungkin bagi orang untuk mencoba variasi Varshitap dengan makan setiap hari alternatif, pada umumnya. They can eat only twice in every alternate day, but in between during some special calendar events, they may have to fast longer periods.. Mereka bisa makan hanya dua kali dalam setiap hari alternatif, tetapi di antara selama beberapa acara kalender khusus, mereka mungkin harus periode cepat lagi ..
Other Kind of Fasting . Lainnya Jenis Puasa.
Ayambil : a person eats only one kind of food per day, which can not contain salt. Ayambil: seseorang makan hanya satu jenis makanan per hari, yang tidak dapat berisi garam.
Other kind of fasting include Ekashana and Biashana. jenis lain dari puasa termasuk Ekashana dan Biashana.
[ edit ] Pacifism [ sunting ] pasifisme
Compassion for all life, human and non-human , is central to Jainism. Belas kasih bagi semua kehidupan, manusia dan non-manusia , merupakan pusat Jainisme. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment; to kill any person, no matter what crime he may have committed, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. Kehidupan manusia dinilai sebagai peluang, unik langka untuk mencapai pencerahan, untuk membunuh setiap orang, tidak peduli apa kejahatan yang mungkin telah melakukan, dianggap terbayangkan menjijikkan. It is a religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian . Ini adalah agama yang memerlukan biarawan dan kaum awam, dari semua sekte dan tradisi, untuk menjadi vegetarian . Some Indian regions, such as Gujarati, have been strongly influenced by Jains and often the majority of the local Hindus of every denomination have also become vegetarian. [ 48 ] Beberapa daerah India, seperti Gujarat, telah sangat dipengaruhi oleh Jain dan sering mayoritas Hindu lokal dari setiap denominasi juga menjadi vegetarian. [48]
[ edit ] History [ sunting ] Sejarah
 Jainism timeline Jainisme timeline |
|---|
History Sejarah | [show] The age of Tīrthaṇkaras Umur Tīrthaṇkaras |
|---|
2000–1500 BCE 2000-1500 SM | Terracotta seals excavated at site suggest links of Jainism with Indus Valley civilization . Terracotta segel digali di situs menunjukkan link Jainisme dengan peradaban Lembah Indus . Mention of Jain Tīrthaṇkaras in Vedas indicates pre-historic origins of Jainism. Penyebutan Jain Tīrthaṇkaras dalam Weda menunjukkan asal-usul pra-sejarah dari Jainisme. | 877–777 BCE 877-777 SM | The period of Pārśva , the 23rd Tīrthaṇkaras Masa Pārśva , yang Tīrthaṇkaras 23 | 599–527 BCE 599-527 SM | The age of Māhavīra , the 24th Tīrthaṇkaras of Jainism Usia Mahavira , yang Tīrthaṇkaras 24 Jainisme | 527 BCE 527 SM | Nirvāṇa of Māhavīra, Kevala Jñāna of his chief disciple Ganadhara Gautama and origin of Divāli . Nirvana dari Mahavira, Kevala Jnana dari Ganadhara nya kepala murid Gautama dan asal Divāli . |
| [show] The age of Kevalins Umur Kevalins |
|---|
523 BCE 523 SM | As per Jain cosmology , the end of the 4th āra Duḥṣama-suṣamā and start of 5th āra Duḥṣama (sorrow and misery). Sebagai per Jain kosmologi , akhir Duḥṣama Ara 4-suṣamā dan mulai dari Duḥṣama Ara 5 (kesedihan dan kesengsaraan). The age of sorrow is said to have started three years and eight and a half months after the nirvana of Māhavīra. Usia kesedihan dikatakan telah dimulai tiga tahun dan delapan setengah bulan setelah nirwana dari Mahavira. | 527–463 BCE 527-463 SM | The Reign of the Kevalins — Gautama, Sudharma and Jambusvami Pemerintahan dari Kevalins - Gautama, Sudharma dan Jambusvami |
| [show] The age of Sruta-kevali's Usia-kevali's Sruta |
|---|
463–367 BCE 463-367 SM | | 320–298 BCE 320-298 SM | The reign of Chandragupta Maurya . Pemerintahan Chandragupta Maurya . became a Jain ascetic at the end of his reign. menjadi pertapa Jain pada akhir pemerintahannya. | 2nd century BCE Abad ke-2 SM | Khāravela, reign of King of Kalinga (Orissa). Khāravela, pemerintahan Raja Kalinga (Orissa). Reinstallation of Jina image taken by Nanda Kings of Magadha as per Hathigumpha inscription Jina instalasi ulang gambar yang diambil oleh Nanda Raja Magadha per Hathigumpha prasasti |
| [show] The Agamic Age The Age Agamic |
|---|
156 CE 156 CE | Recitation of Ṣaṭkhaṇdāgama and Kaṣāyapahuda by Ācārya Dharasena to Ācārya Puṣpadanta and Ācārya Bhūtabali in Candragumpha in Mount Girnar. Zikir dari Ṣaṭkhaṇdāgama dan Kaṣāyapahuda oleh Acarya Dharasena untuk Acarya Puṣpadanta dan Acarya Bhūtabali di Candragumpha di Gunung Girnar. (683 years after Māhavīra) (683 tahun setelah Mahavira) | 2nd Century CE 2nd Century CE | Kundakunda , founder of Mūla sangha – the main Digambara ascetic lineage. Kundakunda , pendiri Sangha Mula - pertapa Digambara garis keturunan utama. | 2nd – 3rd Century CE 2 - 3 CE Century | Compilation of Tattvārthasūtra by Umāsvāti (Umāsvāmi). Penyusunan Tattvārthasūtra oleh Umāsvāti (Umāsvāmi). This was the first major Jain work in Sanskrit . Ini adalah Jain pekerjaan utama pertama dalam bahasa Sanskerta . | 300 CE 300 CE | Two simultaneous councils for compilation of Āgamas , 827 years after Māhavīra – Mathura Council headed by Ācārya Skandila and The First Valabhi Council headed by Ācārya Nāgārjuna. Dua dewan simultan untuk kompilasi dari Āgamas , 827 tahun setelah Mahavira - Mathura Dewan dipimpin oleh Acarya Skandila dan Valabhi Pertama Dewan dipimpin oleh Acarya Nagarjuna. | 453 or 466 CE 453 atau 466 CE | Second Valabhi Council headed by Devarddhi Ganin, that is, 980 or 993 AV – Final redaction and compilation of Śvetāmbara Canons. Kedua Valabhi Dewan dipimpin oleh Devarddhi Ganin, yaitu, 980 atau 993 AV - redaksi Akhir dan penyusunan Śvetāmbara Kanon. |
| [show] The Age of Logic The Age of Logic |
|---|
4th – 16th Century CE, also known as the age of logic, was the period of development of Jain logic, Philosophy and Yoga. 4 - 16 Century CE, juga dikenal sebagai zaman logika, adalah periode pengembangan logika Jain, Filsafat dan Yoga. Various original texts, commentaries and expositions were written. Berbagai teks asli, tafsiran dan eksposisi ditulis. The main Ācāryas were – Samantabhadra, Siddhasena Divākara, Akalanka, Haribhadra , Mānikyanandi, Vidyānandi, Prabhācandra, Hemacandra , Yaśovijaya. Para Ācāryas utama - Samantabhadra, Siddhasena Divākara, Akalanka, Haribhadra , Mānikyanandi, Vidyānandi, Prabhācandra, Hemacandra , Yaśovijaya. For a detailed chronological list of Jain philosopher-monks see Jain Philosophers . Untuk daftar kronologis rinci-filsuf biarawan Jain lihat Filsuf Jain . It was also a period of formation of modern Jain communities and extensive Jain contribution to Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada, Hindi and Gujarati Literature. Ini juga merupakan masa pembentukan masyarakat Jain Jain modern dan kontribusi yang luas untuk bahasa Sanskerta, Tamil, Kannada, Hindi dan Gujarati Sastra. | 981 CE 981 CE | Construction of Gommaṭeśvara – Statue of Lord Bāhubalī (18 meters- 57 feet, worlds tallest monolithic free standing structure), at Sravana Belagola , Karnataka by Cāmuṇḍarāya , the General-in-chief and Prime Minister of the Gaṅga kings of Mysore . Konstruksi Gommaṭeśvara - Patung Tuhan Bāhubalī (18 meter-57 meter, dunia bebas berdiri struktur monolitik tertinggi), di Sravana Belagola , Karnataka oleh Cāmuṇḍarāya ,-in-chief dan Perdana Menteri Jenderal Gangga raja Mysore . | 10th Century CE 10th Century CE | Emergence of Śvetāmbara Gacchas out of which, most prominent are – Tapā Gachha , and Kharatara Gaccha Munculnya Śvetāmbara Gacchas dari yang paling menonjol adalah - Tapa Gachha, dan Kharatara Gaccha | 11th–12th Century CE 11-12 Century CE | Construction of Delwara temples at Mount Ābu built by the Jain ministers of the king of Gujarat, Vastupāla and Tejapāla Konstruksi candi Delwara di Gunung Abu dibangun oleh para menteri Jain raja Gujarat, Vastupāla dan Tejapāla | 13th Century CE 13th Century CE | Emergence of institution of Bhattāraka Munculnya lembaga Bhattāraka | 1474 CE 1474 CE | Establishment of non-image worshipping Śvetāmbara sect of Sthānakvasi established by a Jain layman, Lonka Shah. | 1506 CE | Establishment of Taranapantha Digambara sect | 1683 CE | Establishment of Digambara sect of Terapantha by a Śvetāmbara layman, Banarasidas | 1760 CE | Separation of Ācārya Bhikṣu from Sthānakavasi and establishment of Śvetāmbara Terāpantha sect. | 1901 CE | Establishment of Kavi Pantha based on the teachings of Srimad Rājacandra (1867 – 1901) | 1934 CE | Separation of Kānjisvāmi from Sthānakavasi and establishment of Digambara Kānjipantha |
|
|---|
Parshvanatha , the twenty-third Tirthankar, is the earliest Jain leader who can be reliably dated. As noted, however, Jain mythology asserts that the line of Tirthankars in the present era began with Rushabhdeva; moreover, Jains themselves believe that Jainism has no single founder, and that it has always existed and will always exist, although it is occasionally forgotten by humans. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
According to scholars, Parshvanatha was an historical figure and lived in the 9th century BC. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] In the 6th century BC, Vardhamana Mahavira became one of the most influential Jainism teachers. He built up a large group of disciples that learned from his teachings and followed him as he taught an ascetic doctrine in order to achieve enlightenment. The disciples referred to him as Jina, which means "the conqueror" and later his followers would use a derivation of this title to refer to themselves as Jains, a follower of the Jina. [ 51 ]
It is generally accepted that Jainism started spreading in south India from the 3rd century BC. ie since the time when Badrabahu, a preacher of this religion and the head of the monks' community, came to Karnataka from Bihar. [ 52 ]
Kalinga (modern Orissa /Osiaji) was home to many Jains in the past. Rishabhnath , the first Tirthankar, was revered and worshipped in the ancient city Pithunda ,capital of Kalinga (modern Orissa ). This was destroyed by Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and brought the statue of Rushabhanatha to his capital in Magadh. Rushabhanatha is revered as the Kalinga Jina . Ashoka 's invasion and his Buddhist policy also subjugated Jains greatly in Kalinga. However, in the 1st century BC Emperor Kharvela conquered Magadha and brought Rushabhnath's statue back and installed it in Udaygiri, near his capital, Shishupalgadh. The Khandagiri and Udaygiri caves near Bhubaneswar are the only surviving stone Jain monuments in Orissa. Earlier buildings were made of wood and were destroyed.
Deciphering of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1788 enabled the reading of ancient inscriptions in India and established the antiquity of Jainism. The discovery of Jain manuscripts has added significantly to retracing Jain history. Archaeologists have encountered Jain remains and artifacts at Maurya, Sunga, Kishan, Gupta, Kalachuries, Rashtrakut, Chalukya, Chandel and Rajput as well as later sites. Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. Western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan, worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
[ edit ] Geographical spread and influence
This pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar may have given rise to Buddhism . The Buddhists have always maintained that during the time of Buddha and Mahavira (who, according to the Pali canon , were contemporaries), Jainism was already an ancient, deeply entrenched faith and culture there. Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion has been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain rituals may be observed in certain Jain sects. Certain Vedic Hindu holy books contain beautiful narrations about various Jain Tirthankaras (eg, Lord Rushabdev). In recorded history there have been no wars fought in the name of Jainism.
With 10 to 12 million followers, [ 53 ] Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions , but in India its influence is much greater than these numbers would suggest. Jains live throughout India. Maharashtra , Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain populations among Indian states. Karnataka , Bundelkhand and Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large following in Punjab , especially in Ludhiana and Patiala , and there used to be many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947, after which many fled to India. There are many Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They may speak local languages or follow different rituals but essentially they follow the same principles.
Jains have had a significant presence in the Southern Indian State of Karnataka for a long time. The holy Moodabidre ,famously renouned as 'Southern Kashi ' has 1000 pillar temple( ಸಾವಿರ ಕಂಬದ ಬಸಧಿ ). Shravanabelagola has the world famous monolithic statue of Lord Bahubali . Similar Monolithic statues of Lord Bahubali can be also seen in Venur , Dharmasthala , Karkala and Mysore as well. In all of the above mentioned places, the holy festival of Mahamastakabhisheka will be held once every 12 years when the statue of the lord will be worshiped and bathed in Holy water, Milk, Turmeric, and other natural herbs that have their own significant importance.
Outside India, the United States , United Kingdom , Canada , and East Africa ( Kenya , Tanzania , and Uganda ) have large Jain communities. The first Jain temple to be built outside India was constructed and consecrated in the 1960s in Mombasa , Kenya by the local Gujarati community, although Jainism in the West mostly came about after the Oshwal and Jain diaspora spread to the West in the late 1970s and 1980s. Jainism is presently a strong faith in the United States, and several dozen Jain temples have been built there, primarily by the Gujarati community. American Jainism accommodates all the sects. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal , South Africa , Japan , Singapore , Malaysia , Australia , Fiji , and Suriname . In Belgium, the very successful Indian diamond community, almost all of whom are Jain, are also establishing a temple to strengthen Jain values in and across Western Europe.
[ edit ] Denominations [ sunting ] Denominasi
Timeline of various splits in Jainism
Jain sangha is divided into two major sects , Digambar and Svetambar . The differences between the two sects are minor and relatively obscure. Digambar Jain monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes, like other possessions, increase dependency and desire for material things, and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow. Svetambar Jain monks, on the other hand, wear white, seamless clothes for practical reasons, and believe there is nothing in Jain scripture that condemns wearing clothes. Sadhvis (nuns) of both sects wear white. In Sanskrit, ambar refers to a covering generally, or a garment in particular. Dig , an older form of disha , refers to the cardinal directions. Digambar therefore means "covered by the four directions", or "sky-clad". Svet means white and Svetambars wear white garments.
Digambars believe that women cannot attain moksha in the same birth, while Svetambars believe that women may attain liberation and that Mallinath, a Tirthankar, was female. [ 54 ] The earliest record of this Digambar belief is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambara mendicant Kundakunda (c. 2nd century AD). [ 55 ]
Digambars believe that Mahavir remained unmarried, whereas Svetambars believe Mahavir did marry a woman who bore him a daughter. The two sects also differ on the origin of Mata Trishala, Mahavira's mother. Digambars believe that only the first five lines are formally part of the Namokara Mantra (the main Jain prayer), whereas Svetambaras believe all nine form the mantra. Other differences are minor and not based on major points of doctrine.
Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from the Kushana period. Tirthankaras, represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm are identified as Ardhaphalaka and mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniya sect, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, follows Digambara nudity, along with several Svetambara beliefs.
Svetambaras are further divided into sub-sects, such as Sthanakavasi, Terapanthi and Deravasi . Some are murtipujak (revering statues) while non-Murtipujak Jains refuse statues or images. Svetambar follow the 12 agam literature (voice of omniscient).
Most simply call themselves Jains and follow general traditions rather than specific sectarian practices. In 1974 a committee with representatives from every sect compiled a new text called the Samana Suttam .
[ edit ] Jain symbolism
Main article:
Jain symbols 
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa, meaning
non-violence . The word in the middle is "
Ahimsa ". The wheel represents the
dharmacakra , to halt the cycle of reincarnation through the pursuit of
truth .
The
swastika is among the holiest of Jain symbols. Worshippers use rice grains to create a
swastika around the temple altar.
The holiest symbol is a simple swastika . A Jain swastika is normally associated with the three dots on the top accompanied with a crest and a dot. Another important symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand, symbolizing Ahimsa . Other major Jain symbols include:
- Swastika -Signifies peace and well-being
- Shrivatsa -A mark manifested on the centre of the Jina's chest, signifying a pure soul.
- Nandyavartya -Large swastika with nine corners
- Vardhamanaka -A shallow earthen dish used for lamps, suggests an increase in wealth, fame and merit due to a Jina's grace.
- Bhadrasana -Throne, considered auspicious because it is sanctified by the blessed Jina's feet.
- Kalasha -Pot filled with pure water signifying wisdom and completeness
- Minayugala -A fish couple. It signifies Cupid's banners coming to worship the Jina after defeating the God of Love
- Darpana -The mirror reflects one's true self because of its clarity
[ edit ] Culture [ sunting ] Budaya
[ edit ] Jain contributions to Indian culture
While Jains represent less than 1% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India are significant. Jainism had a major influence in developing a system of philosophy and ethics that had a great impact on all aspects of Indian culture. Scholarly research and evidences have shown that philosophical concepts considered typically Indian – Karma , Ahimsa , Moksa , reincarnation and like – either originate in the sramana school of thought or were propagated and developed by Jaina and Buddhist teachers. [ 56 ]
Jains have also contributed to the culture and language of the Indian states Tamil Nadu , Karnataka , Gujarat and Rajasthan . Great ancient Tamil books titled Silapathigaram, Seevaka Sinthamani, Manimegalai, Naaladiyar, etc. were written by Jain scholars. In the beginning of the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, Kannada writers were predominantly of the Jain and Veerashaiva faiths. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century. Jain authors wrote about Jain Tirthankars and other aspects of the Jain religion. Pampa [ 57 ] (Kannada: ಪಂಪ, born 902 CE), also known as Adikavi Pampa (Kannada: ಆದಿಕವಿ ಪಂಪ), is one of the greatest Kannada poets of all time and was the court poet of Chalukya King Arikesari, a Rashtrakuta feudatory, most known for Vikramarjuna Vijaya (Pampa Bharata). The works of Jain writers Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature", heralded the age of classical Kannada in the 10th century. The earliest known Gujarati text, Bharat-Bahubali Ras, was written by a Jain monk. Some important people in Gujarat's Jain history were Acharya Hemacandra Suri and his pupil, the Chalukya ruler Kumarapala .
Jains are among the wealthiest Indians. They run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals and are important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat. Jains have greatly influenced Gujarati cuisine . Gujarat is predominantly vegetarian (see Jain vegetarianism ), and its food is mild as onions and garlic are omitted. Though the Jains form only 0.42% of the population of India, their contribution to the exchequer by way of income tax is an astounding 24% of the total tax collected . [ 58 ]
Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Jain monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups and parallels Christian clergy. The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most literate community and that India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain institutions .
[ edit ] Jain literature
Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature . For example, almost all early Kannada literature and many Tamil works were written by Jains.
- Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars. The first autobiography in Hindi, Ardha-Kathanaka was written by a Jain, Banarasidasa , an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in Agra.
- Many Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
- Practically all the known texts in the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.
The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit ( Agamas , Agama-Tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc.). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit ( Tatvartha Sutra , Puranas , Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc.). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri , is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand the Jain Prakrit , Sanskrit , and Ardha-Magadhi and other Jain languages, words, their use and references with in oldest Jain literature. Later Jain literature was written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Hindi (Chhahadhala, Mokshamarga Prakashaka , and others), Tamil ( Jivakacintamani , Valayapathi , Naaladiyaar and others), and Kannada ( Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of Ramayana and Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsha and Kannada.
[ edit ] Jainism and other religions
Jains are not a part of the Vedic Religion ( Hinduism ). [ 59 ] [ 60 ] [ 61 ] Ancient India had two philosophical streams of thought: The Shramana philosophical schools, represented by Jainism movement, and the Brahmana / Vedic / Puranic schools represented by Vedanta , Vaishnava and other movements. Both streams have existed side by side for few thousands of years, influencing each other. [ 62 ]
The Hindu scholar, Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism and thus leading to the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa and wrote in a letter printed in Bombay Samachar , Mumbai:10 December 1904: "In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta .
Swami Vivekananda [ 28 ] [ 63 ] also credited Jainism as influencing force behind the Indian culture and said:
"What could have saved Indian society from the ponderous burden of omnifarious ritualistic ceremonialism, with its animal and other sacrifices, which all but crushed the very life of it, except the Jain revolution, which took its strong stand exclusively on chaste morals and philosophical truths? Jains were the first great ascetics and they did some great work. "Don't injure any and do good to all that you can, and that is all the morality and ethics, and that is all the work there is, and the rest is all nonsense." And then they went to work and elaborated this one principle all through, and it is a most wonderful ideal: how all that we call ethics they simply bring out from that one great principle of non-injury and doing good."
- Relationship between Jainism and Hinduism – According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Hinduism,"...With Jainism, which always remained an independent Indian religion. Hinduism has some common concepts and practices, that nowadays some Hindus tend to consider Jainism as Hindu sect.
- Independent Religion – From the Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Jainism: "...Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, it is one of the three most ancient Indian religious traditions still in existence. ...While often employing concepts shared with Hinduism and Buddhism, the result of a common cultural and linguistic background, the Jain tradition must be regarded as an independent phenomenon. It is an integral part of South Asian religious belief and practice, but it is not a Hindu sect or Buddhist heresy, as earlier scholars believed." [ 64 ] The author Koenraad Elst in his book, Who is a Hindu? , summarises on the similarities between Jains and the mainstream Hindu society.
- Monier Williams, in his article of Jainism, mentions that Jains outdo every other Indian sect in carrying the prohibition of violence to the most extent. [ 65 ]
[ edit ] Jain monasticism
Mulnayak Shri Adinath Bhagwan, Bibrod Jain Temple, Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh, India
In India there are several Jain Monks, in categories like Acharya, Upadhyaya and Muni. Trainee ascetics are known as Ailaka and Ksullaka in the Digambar tradition.
There are two categories of ascetics, Sadhu (monk) and Sadhvi (nun). They practice the five Mahavratas , three Guptis and five Samitis :
Five major vows (Mahavrata)
- Non-violence (Ahimsa): Non-violence in thought, word and deed so as not to cause harm to any living beings
- Truthfulness (Satya): Truth, which is (hita) beneficial, (mita) succinct, and (priya) pleasing. In other words, to speak the harmless truth
- Non-stealing (Astey): Not to take anything that has not been given to them willingly by the owner
- Chastity (Brahmacarya): Absolute purity of mind and body without indulging in sensual pleasure
- Non-possession (Aparigraha): Exercise no attachment or aversion to all people, places, and material objects around.
Three Restraints (Gupti)
- Control of the mind (Managupti)
- Control of speech (Vacanagupti)
- Control of body (Kayagupti)
Five Carefulness (Samiti)
- Carefulness while walking (Irya Samiti)
- Carefulness while communicating (Bhasha Samiti)
- Carefulness while eating (Eshana Samiti)
- Carefulness while handling their fly-whisks, water gourds, etc. (Adana Nikshepana Samiti)
- Carefulness while disposing of bodily waste matter (Pratishthapana Samiti)
Male Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and are nude. They practice non-attachment to the body and hence, wear no clothes. Shvetambara monks and nuns wear white clothes. Shvetambaras believe that monks and nuns may wear simple un-stitched white clothes as long as they are not attached to them. Jain monks and nuns travel on foot. They do not use mechanical transport.
Digambar followers take up to eleven Pratimaye (oath). The Male Digambar monk eat standing at one place in their palms without using any utensil. They eat only once a day.
[ edit ] Languages used in Jain literature
Jains literature exists mainly in Prakrit , Sanskrit , Marathi , Tamil , Rajasthani ( Dhundhari , Marwari ), Hindi , Gujarati , Kannada , Malayalam , [ 66 ] Tulu and more recently in English .
[ edit ] Constitutional status of Jainism in India
In 2005 the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus towards granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court noted that Jains have been declared a minority in five states already, and left it to the rest of the States to decide on the minority status of Jain religion. [ 67 ]
In 2006 the Supreme Court in a judgment pertaining to an Indian state, opined that "Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion". (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, Uttar Pradesh v. Sachiv, UP Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, UP and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India)
[ edit ] References [ sunting ] Referensi
- ^ a b Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.15 "Jainas consider that religion is eternal and imperishable. It is without beginning and it will never cease to exist. The darkness of error enveloping the truth in certain, periodically occurring aeons clears up again and again so that the brightness of the Jaina-faith can sparkle again anew."
- ^ a b Dundas, Paul. 2002. 2002. The Jains. P.12 "Jainism is believed by its followers to be everlasting, without beginning or end..."
- ^ Varni, Jinendra; Ed. Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Translated Justice TK Tukol and Dr. Narendra Bhandari(still alive). Samaṇ Suttaṁ . New Delhi: Bhagwan Mahavir memorial Samiti. “The Historians have so far fully recognized the truth that Tirthankara Mahavira was not the founder of the religion. He was preceded by many tirthankaras . He merely reiterated and rejuvenated that religion. It is correct that history has not been able to trace the origin of the Jaina religion; but historical evidence now available and the result of dispassionate researches in literature have established that Jainism is undoubtedly an ancient religion.” Pp. xii – xiii of introduction by Justice TKTutkol and Dr. KK Dixit.
- ^ Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period."
- ^ Dundas, Paul. 2002. 2002. The Jains. P.17. "Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the eighth or seventh centuries BCE."
- ^ Larson, Gerald James (1995) India's Agony over religion SUNY Press ISBN 0-7914-2412-X . “There is some evidence that Jain traditions may be even older than the Buddhist traditions, possibly going back to the time of the Indus valley civilization, and that Vardhamana rather than being a “founder” per se was, rather, simply a primary spokesman for much older tradition. Page 27”
- ^ Joel Diederik Beversluis (2000) In: Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality , New World Library : Novato, CA ISBN 1-57731-121-3 Originating on the Indian sub-continent, Jainism is one of the oldest religion of its homeland and indeed the world, having pre-historic origins before 3000 BC and the propagation of Indo-Aryan culture.... p. p. 81 81
- ^ Jainism by Mrs. NR Guseva p.44
- ^ "Indian Census" . ^ "India Sensus" . Censusindia.gov.in . http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/religion.aspx . Retrieved 2010-09-01 . Diperoleh 2010/09/01.
- ^ Estimates for the population of Jains differ from just over four million to twelve million due to difficulties of Jain identity, with Jains in some areas counted as a Hindu sect. Many Jains do not return Jainism as their religion on census forms for various reasons such as certain Jain castes considering themselves both Hindu and Jain. The 1981 Census of India returned 3.19 million Jains. This was estimated at the time to be at least half the true number. There are an estimated 25,000-30,000 Jains in Europe (mostly in Britain), 20,000 in Africa, 45,000 plus in North America (from Dundas, Paul (2002). The Jains . Routledge. p. 271. ISBN 0415266068, 9780415266062 . http://books.google.com/?id=5ialKAbIyV4C&pg=PA299&dq=jains+britain#v=onepage&q=jains%20britain&f=false . ) and 5,000 in the rest of Asia.
- ^ "Press Information Bureau, Government of India" . Pib.nic.in. 2004-09-06 . http://pib.nic.in/release/rel_print_page1.asp?relid=3724 . Retrieved 2010-09-01 . Diperoleh 2010/09/01.
- ^ "Census of India 2001" . Censusindia.net . http://www.censusindia.net . Retrieved 2010-09-01 . Diperoleh 2010/09/01.
- ^ The Jain Knowledge Warehouses: Traditional Libraries in India, John E. Cort, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 115, No. 1 (January – March, 1995), pp. 77–87
- ^ a b c d Mehta, TU "Path of Arhat – A Religious Democracy" (DOC). Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha . http://www.ibiblio.org/jainism/database/BOOK/arhat.doc . Retrieved 2008-03-11 . Diperoleh 2008/03/11.
- ^ Fisher, Mary Pat and Bailey, Lee W. An Anthology of Living Religions. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2008. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2008.
- ^ Kastenbaum, Robert (2003) "Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying " p. 491 491
- ^ Tattvartha Sutra
- ^ Dulichand Jain (1998) Thus Spake Lord Mahavir, Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai, ISBN 81-7120-825-8 Page 69
- ^ Prof. ^ Prof SAJain. Reality – English Translation of Sarvarthasiddhi by Srimat Pujyapadacharya, 2nd Edition, Chapter 7, Page 195.
- ^ The Jaina Path of Purification, Padmanabh S. Jaini, pg 246 footnote 8
- ^ Jainism: The World of Conquerors By Natubhai Shah Published 1998 Sussex Academic Press
- ^ Pramodaben Chitrabhanu, Jain symbols, Ceremonies and Practices
- ^ Buswell, Robert E. (2004) "Encyclopedia of Buddhism." p. p. 383 383
- ^ Book: Outlines of Jainism pg. 159, Author: S.Gopalan
- ^ Book: Outlines of Jainism pg. 163–164, Author: S.Gopalan
- ^ Book: Outlines of Jainism p. 164-165, Author: S.Gopalan
- ^ Tobias, Michael (1991). Life Force. The World of Jainism . Berkeley, California: Asian manush Press. pp. 6–7, 15. ISBN 0-89581-899-X .
- ^ a b Dulichand Jain (1998) Thus Spake Lord Mahavir, Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai, ISBN 81-7120-825-8 Page 15
- ^ Singh Ramjee Dr. Jaina Perspective in Philosophy and Religion,Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, Faridabad, 1992
- ^ "Content Pages of the Encyclopedia of Religion and Social Science" . Hirr.hartsem.edu . http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/jainism.htm . Retrieved 2010-09-01 . Diperoleh 2010/09/01.
- ^ Kuhn, Hermann (2001). In: Karma, The Mechanism : Create Your Own Fate . Nevada: Crosswind Publishing.
- ^ Dr. ^ Dr HV Glasenapp, Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy, Pg 2
- ^ Zydenbos (2006)
- ^ "Foreword". Jain Yog . Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. 2004. 2004.
- ^ "blessings". Sambodhi . Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. 2004. 2004.
- ^ . ^ . . . .from Hindi jaina, from Sanskrit jinah "saint," lit. "overcomer," from base ji "to conquer," related to jaya "victory." etymonline.com entry
- ^ Hindi jaina, from Sanskrit jaina-, "relating to the saints", from jinaḥ , "saint, victor", from jayati, "he conquers". dictionary.com entry
- ^ Singh, Ramjee Dr. Jaina Perspective in Philosophy and Religion, Faridabad, Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, 1993.
- ^ a b Jarl Charpentier: The History of the Jains , in: The Cambridge History of India , vol. 1, Cambridge 1922, p. 153; AM Ghatage: Jainism , in: The Age of Imperial Unity , ed. RC Majumdar/AD Pusalkar, Bombay 1951, p. 411-412; Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo: History of Jaina Monachism , Poona 1956, p. 59-60.
- ^ q
- ^ The Jaina Path of Purification, Pg 30 and 31, Padmanabh S. Jaini, University of California Press - ISBN 0-520-03459-7
- ^ First 8 days observed by Svetambaras and next 10 days followed by Digambaras
- ^ "Mahaveer Janma Kalyanak" . JainNet . http://www.jainnet.com/festivals/mahaveer_janma_kalyanak.html . Retrieved 2010-09-01 . Diperoleh 2010/09/01.
- ^ Based on the Jain view of the Universe re the Avasarpini and Utsarpini eras, Final Liberation is only possible in the 3rd and 4th Eras of each of the latter. For further reading see 'The Jaina Path of Purification', PS Jaini mentioned previously.
- ^ [1] . ^ [1] .
- ^ "Jainism" . Jainuniversity.org . http://www.jainuniversity.org/jainism.aspx . Retrieved 2010-09-01 . Diperoleh 2010/09/01.
- ^ Kastenbaum, Robert. "Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying" (2003) pg. 492 492
- ^ Titze, Kurt, Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998
- ^ "Parshvanatha" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 2007 . http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9058576 . Retrieved 2007-10-22 . Diperoleh 2007/10/22.
- ^ Bowker, John (2000). "Parsva" . The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions . Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press . http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t101.e5504 . Retrieved 2007-10-22 . Diperoleh 2007/10/22.
- ^ Jerry Bentley and Herbert Ziegler: "Traditions and Encounters", in: "State, Society, and the Quest for SAlvation in India" p187; McGrawHill, 1999
- ^ Jainism by Mrs. NR Guseva, p.51
- ^ Basic Faith Group Information
- ^ Anne Vallely; Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community (page 15)
- ^ Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women. Padmanabh S. Jaini University of California Press, 1991
- ^ Zydenbos, Robert J. (2006)
- ^ Pampa
- ^ Jains' contribution to exchequer “astounding” , Online Edition, The Hindu (August 20, 2007). Retrieved on August 29, 2008. Diakses pada 29 Agustus 2008.
- ^ JL Jaini, (1916) Jaina Law, Bhadrabahu Samhita, (Text with translation ) Arrah, Central jaina publishing House) " As to Jains being Hindu dissenters, and, therefore governable by Hindu law, we are not told this date of secession [...] Jainism certainly has a longer history than is consistent with its being a creed of dissenters from Hinduism." P.12-13
- ^ PS Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. ^ PS Jaini, (1979), Jalan Jaina untuk Pemurnian, Banarsidass Motilal, Delhi, hal 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism" 169 "Jainas sendiri tidak punya memori waktu ketika mereka jatuh dalam lipatan Veda. Setiap teori yang mencoba untuk menghubungkan dua tradisi, apalagi gagal untuk menghargai karakter agak khas dan sangat non-Weda kosmologi Jaina, teori jiwa, doktrin karma dan ateisme "
- ^ Y. ^ Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-208-0815-0 “There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel to native religions of India and have contributed much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times.” Page 18
- ^ Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc ISBN 1-933316-22-5 "What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as sramana dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins". Page 141 Page 141
- ^ Swami Vivekananda (1900) The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda , Volume 3, Buddhistic India] (Lecture delivered at the Shakespeare Club, Pasadena, California, on February 2, 1900)
- ^ Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. "Jainism – Britannica Online Encyclopedia" . Britannica.com . http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105858/Jainism#cite . Retrieved 2010-09-01 . Diperoleh 2010/09/01.
- ^ Cited in TG Kalghati, Jaina View of Life (Sholapur: Jaina Samskriti Samrakshaka Sangha, 1969) p.163
- ^ Banerjee, Satya Ranjan (2005). Prolegomena to Prakritica et Jainica . The Asiatic Society . p. p. 61 . http://books.google.com/?id=cnxjAAAAMAAJ .
- ^ http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098 [ dead link ]
[ edit ] Further reading [ sunting ] Bacaan lebih lanjut
- Alsdorf, Ludwig. Jaina Studies: Their Present State and Future Tasks. Eng. tr. tr. Bal Patil. Edited by Willem Bollée. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 1. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Amiel,Pierre. Les Jaïns aujourd'hui dans le monde Ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003 translated in English and printed under the title "Jains today in the world" by Parshwanath Vidyapeeth, Varanasi,India, 2008
- Amiel,Pierre. BA-BA du Jaïnisme Editions Pardès,Grez sur Loing,2008
- Balbir, Nalini (Ed.) Catalogue of the Jain Manuscripts of the British Library . Set of 3 books. London: Institute of Jainology, 2006.
- Bollée, Willem. The Story of Paesi Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 2. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2005.
- Bollée, Willem. Vyavahara Bhasya Pithika. Prakrit text with English translation, annotations and exhaustive Index by Willem Bollée. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 4. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Caillat, Colette "La cosmologie jaïna" Ed. du Chêne, Paris 1981.
- Chand, Bool. "Mahavira-Le Grand héros des Jaïns" Maisonneuve et Larose, Paris 1998.
- Hynson, Colin. Discover Jainism. Ed. Mehool Sanghrajka. London: Institute of Jainology, 2007.
- Jain, DuliChand. English version of "Baghawan Mahavir ki Vani" – Thus Spake Lord Mahavir . Chennai, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1998.
- Jain, Duli Chandra (Ed.) Studies in Jainism . Set of 3 books. New York: Jain Stucy Circle, 2004.
- Jalaj, Jaykumar . The Basic Thought of Bhagavan Mahavir . Ed. Ed. Elinor Velázquez. (5th edition) Jaipur: Prakrit Bharati Academy, 2007.
- Joindu. Paramatmaprakasha. Apabhramsha text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 9. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007.
- Joindu. Yogasara. Apabhramsha text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Ed. Satyanarayana Hegde. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 10. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2008.
- Kapashi, Vinod. Nava Smarana: Nine Sacred Recitations of Jainism. Ed. Signe Kirde. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007.
- Kundakunda. Atthapahuda Prakrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 6. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Mardia, KV The Scientific Foundations of Jainism. Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, latest edition 2007. ISBN 81-208-0659-X ( Jain Dharma ki Vigyanik Adharshila . Parsvanath Vidhyapitha, Varanasi. 2004. ISBN 81-86715-71-1 ).
- Mehta, TU Path of Arhat – A Religious Democracy , Volume 63, Faridabad: Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, 1993.
- Nagendra Kr Singh, Indo-European Jain Research Foundation, Encyclopaedia of Jainism ISBN 81-261-0691-3 , ISBN 978-81-261-0691-2
- Natubhai Shah, Jainism: The World of Conquerors, Published by Sussex Academic Press, 1998, ISBN 1-898723-97-4 , ISBN 978-1-898723-97-4
- Patil, Bal. Jaya Gommatesha. Foreword by Colette Caillat . Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Prabhacandra. Tattvarthasutra. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Preface by Nalini Balbir. Ed. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 7. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2008.
- Pujyapada. Samadhitantra. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 5. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Pujyapada. Istopadesha. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 14. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007.
- Rankin, Aidan. 'The Jain Path: Ancient Wisdom for the West.' Winchester/Washington DC: O Books, 2006.
- Reymond Jean-Pierre "L'Inde des Jaïns" Ed. Atlas 1991.
- Roy, Ashim Kumar. A history of the Jains , New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishing House, 1984.
- Samantabhadra. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Preface by Paul Dundas. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 3. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Sangave Vilas. 'Le Jaïnisme-Philosophie et Religion de l'Inde" Editions Trédaniel Paris 1999.
- Todarmal. Moksamarga Prakashaka. Jaipur: Todarmal Smarak Trust, 1992.
- Vijayashri. Sachitra Pacchis Bol. Agra: Mahasati Kaushalya Devi Prakashan Trust, 2005.
